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Contentment  and  Profit. 


WESTERN 
AGRICULTURE 

J.  A.  WIDTSOE,  Editor 
GEORGE  STEWART,  Associate  Editor 


CO-AUTHORS 

Tracy  H.  Abell 

G.  B.  Hendricks 

Byron  Alder 

J.  C.  Hogenson 

E.  D.  Ball 

L.  R.  Humphreys 

L.  D.  Batchelor 

C.  N.  Jensen 

J.  T.  Caine 

W.  W.  McLaughlin 

J.  T.  Caine,  jr. 

William  Peterson 

W.  E.  Carroll 

C.  W.  Porter 

W.  S.  Drew 

Robert  Stewart 

H.  J.  Frederick 

George  Thomas 

J.  E.  Greaves 

E.  G.  Titus 

F.  S.  Harris 

F.  L.  West 

R. 

B. 

West 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA 

19   18 


<9 


,  .  .     Li..  .vARY-AGroCULTURE  DEPl*. 

Copyright,  1918 
WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


•     •  • 


PREFACE 

Agriculture  has  won  its  place  in  the  educational  curricu- 
lum of  our  land.  It  is  coming  to  be  well  understood  that  the 
body  of  agricultural  truth  is  now  so  large  and  comprehensive, 
and  has  been  so  well  organized,  that  it  may  be  used,  quite  as 
well  as  any  other  science,  to  impart  valuable  information 
and  to  discipline  the  mind.  Moreover,  the  feeling  is  growing 
that,  since  agriculture  applies,  generously,  vital  facts  of 
many  sciences,  especially  in  pointing  out  man's  relationship 
to  nature  and  society,  instruction  in  agriculture  may  well 
be  given  to  all  students,  irrespective  of  future  life  pursuits, 
as  a  training  for  good  citizenship.  The  authors  of  this  book 
have  kept  in  mind  this  view  of  the  value  and  position  of 
agricultural  instruction. 

This  book  is  a  contribution  to  the  proper  teaching  of 
agriculture.  In  the  hope  that  correct  facts  may  be  taught 
in  their  proper  agricultural  relation,  each  chapter  has  been 
written  by  a  trained  specialist.  Further,  since  the  appli- 
cations of  science  to  agricultural  practices  must  vary  ac- 
cording to  general  climatic  conditions,  the  authors  have 
used  more  especially  the  information  that  characterizes 
agriculture  in  the  western  half  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent. The  editors  have  attempted  to  unify  the  style  of 
the  different  authors  and  to  harmonize  the  method  with  sound 
educational  doctrine. 

Modern  science  teaching,  and  perhaps  all  teaching,  must 
not  depend  on  textbooks  alone.  Agriculture  is  fortunate  in 
having  as  its  laboratory  all  of  God's  out-of-doors.  The 
facts  presented  in  this  book  are  supplemented,  therefore, 
with  an  abundance  of  directions  for  practical  work.  Par- 
ticular attention  is  given  to  the  planning  of  projects,  to  be 
used  with  all  good  agricultural  teaching,  but  especially,  at 

415288 


6         /,,.;;  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

this  time,  with  work  conducted  under  the  terms  of  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act. 

The  authors  and  editors  are  under  great  obUgation  to 
numerous  friends,  notable  among  them  Dr.  E.  G.  Peterson, 
President  of  the  Utah  Agricultural  College,  for  aid  in  the 
making  of  this  book. 

Credit  and  thanks  are  acknowledged  and  extended  to 
the  following  for  the  illustrations  indicated  by  the  figure 
references:  To  Julien  P.  Friez  &  Sons,  for  figures  21,  22; 
The  John  Deere  Co.,  for  figures  43,  44,  45,  46,  47;  The  In- 
ternational Harvester  Co.,  for  figures  49,  50,  51 ,  52,  53,  54, 
55,  56,  57;  The  J.  I.  Case  Co.,  for  figure  58;  Stark  Bros. 
Nursery  and  Orchard  Co.,  for  figures  92, 93, 94;  The  American 
Jersey  Cattle  Club,  for  figure  120;  The  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  of  America,  for  figures  122,  123;  The  American 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  for  figure  124;  J.  W.  Clise,  for  figures 
125,  126;  The  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  for 
figures  127,  128;  Bishop  Bros,  for  figures  142,  145;  The  Am- 
erican Southdown  Breeders'  Association,  for  figure  144;  The 
American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society,  for  figure  146;  Kerrow  & 
Sons,  for  figure  147;  The  American  Leicester  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation, for  figure  149;  The  National  Lincoln  Sheep  Breed- 
ers' Association,  for  figure  150;  The  Creamery  Package  Co., 
for  figures  178,  179,  180,  182,  183,  184,. 185. 

August  1,  1918.  THE  EDITORS. 


CONTENTS 

HOW  CROPS  GROW 

Chapter  Page 

I    The  Life  History  of  the  Plant. 15 

Structure  of  Seeds,  Composition  of  Seeds,  Purpose 
of  Seeds,  Germination,  The  Cell,  Growth,  Flower- 
ing, Organs  of  the  Flower,  Fruiting. 

n    The  Plant  in  Relation  to  Temperature  and  Air 23 

Temperature  Relation,  Cardinal  Temperatures, 
Highest  and  Lowest  Temperatures,  Death,  Bud  Pro- 
tection, Wind  Relations,  Oxygen  Relation,  Respir- 
ation. 

in    The  Plant  and  Sunshine 28 

Chlorophyll  and  Photosynthesis,  Light  Necessary, 
Photosynthesis  and  Temperature,  Transpiration,  Res- 
piration, Energy,  Sun  Source  of  All  Energy. 

IV    The  Plant  and  Water 33 

How  the  Plant  Uses  Water,  Plant  Processes  and 
Water,  Transpiration,  Manufacture  of  Foods,  Move- 
ment of  Foods,  Soil  Water,  Available  Water,  Water 
Relation,  Plant  Communities  Favoring  Xerophytic 
Formations,  Conditions  Favoring  Mesophytic  For- 
niations.  Conditions  Favoring  Hydrophytic  Forma- 
tions, Effects  on  the  Form  of  the  Plant,  Water  and 
Crops. 

V    The  Plant  and  the  Soil 41 

Seed,  Home  of  the  Plant,  Source  of  Plant  Food,  Phy- 
sical Condition  of  the  Soil,  Function  of  Roots,  How 
a  Plant  Feeds,  Lime  Favorable  to  Legumes,  Aeration, 
Temperature,  Rotation  of  Crops. 

VI    Microscopic  Plants 49 

Size,  Organism,  Nitrification  and  Nitrogen- Fixation 
by  Bacteria,  Industrial  Uses,  Bacteria  and  Disease, 
Requirements,  Bacteria  Harnessed. 

Vn    Plants  and  Animals 55 

What  Plants  and  Animals  Have  in  Common,  Depen- 
dence of  Animals  on  Plants,  Indestructibility  of 
Matter,  Limestone,  Interdependence  of  Plants  and 
Animals,  Pollination  of  Flowers,  Seed  Dissemination, 
Civilization  Affected  by  Crops,  How  Man  Uses 
Plants,  Crops  and  Live  Stock  on  the  Farm. 

7 


8  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

THE   SOIL 
Chapter  Page 

vm    The  Weather 61 

Air  Pressure,  Air  Cools  When  It  Rises;  Dew  and 
Ilain,  Cause  of  Winds,  Weather  Observations,  Weath- 
er Bureau  Charts,  Value  of  Information,  Climate, 
Climate  and  Man. 

IX    Physiographic  Forces  of  the  Earth 68 

Classification  of  Rocks,  Rock  Formation,  Mountain 
Chains,  Faults,  Elevation  of  Ocean  Beds,  Volcanoes, 
Valleys,  Streams,  Action  of  Other  Forces,  Ice,  The 
History  of  the  Earth. 

X    Geological  History  of  the  Intermountain  West 75 

Rock,  Land  Formation,  Mountain  Growth  in  the 
West,  Valleys,  Alkali,  Lakes  Bonneville  and  Lahon- 
tan,  Lake-Formed  Soils. 

XI    Soil  Formation 80 

Temperature  Changes,  The  Atmosphere,  W^ind, 
Oxidation,  Solvent  Action  of  Water,  Running  Water, 
Lake  Bonneville,  Action  of  Waves,  Ice,  Plants  as 
Soil  Builders,  Animals  as  Soil  Builders. 

Xn    SoU  Texture  and  Structure 88 

Soil  Types,  Soil  Texture,  Soil  Structure,  How  to 
Modify  Soil  Structure,  Baking  of  Soils,  Soil  and 
Subsoil,  Influence  on  Moisture  Content,  Productivity 
of  the  Soil. 

Xni    Plant  Food  in  Soils 95 

Food  Supply,  Carbon.  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen,  Nitro- 
gen, Phosphorus,  Calcium,  Magnesium,  Potassium, 
Iron,  Sulphur,  Summary. 

XIV    FertUe  Soils 101 

Factors  of  Crop  Production,  Virgin  Soils  Fertile, 
Crop  Requirements,  Value  of  Rotation,  Barnyard 
Manure,  Green  Manure,  Limestone,   Summary. 

DRY-FARMING 

XV    The  Value  of  the  Rainfall 108 

Quantity  of  Rainfall,  Distribution  of  Rainfall,  Crop 
\  ields,  Evaporation,  Winds,  Root  Systems,  Dry- 
Farming. 

XVI    Storing  and  Saving  Soil  Water 117 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Soils,  Downward  Move- 
ment of  Soil  Water,  Extent  of  Water-Storage  in  Soils, 
Storage  for  Biennial  Cropping,  Cultural  Methods, 
Water-Loss  by  Evaporation,  Tillage  to  Reduce 
Evaporation,  Loss  by  Transpu^tion,  Controlling 
the  Transpiration. 

XVn    Sowing  and  Caring  for  Dry-Farm  Crops 123 

Soil  Preparation,  Germination,  Sowing  the  Crop, 
Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Storing  and  Marketing, 
Crops  for  the  Dry-Farm. 


CONTENTS 


IRRIGATION 
Chapter  Page 

XVIII    Measurement  of  Water 128 

Second-Foot,  Acre-Foot,  Miner's  Inch,  The  Gallon 
Measure,  Methods  of  Measurement,  The  Current 
Meter,  Floats,  The  Rating  Flume,  The  Weir,  Inches 
of  Water,  Automatic  Devices,  Kutter's  Formula. 

XIX    The  Quantity  of  Water  to  Use 134 

Irrigation  a  Supplementary  Practice,  The  First  Law, 
Spreading  Water  over  Much  Land,  Water  and  Crop 
Development  and  Quality,  Quantity  of  Water  to  Use. 

XX    The  Time  and  Method  of  Irrigation 140 

Plant  Growth  and  Irrigation,  Time  of  Irrigating 
Short-Season  Crops,  Time  of  Irrigating  Long-Season 
Crops,  Fall  and  Winter  Irrigation,  Methods  of  Irriga- 
tion, Irrigation  by  Flooding,  Furrow  Method  of  Irriga- 
tion, Subirrigation,  Permanent  Ditches. 

XXI    Alkali  SoUs 146 

Origin,  Appearance,  Kinds  of  Alkali,  Efifects:  How 
AlkaH  Affects  Plants,  Quantity  Injurious  to  Plants, 
Prevention,  Reclaiming  Alkali  Lands:  Use  of  Gyp- 
sum, Alkali-Resistant  Plants,  Cultivation,  Under- 
drainage. 

XXII    Draining  Irrigated  Lands 154 

Development  of  Irrigation,  The  Upper  Edges  of  Wet 
■  Land,  Effect  of  Surplus  Water  in  Soils,  Soil  and  Sub- 
soils, Wet  or  Water-Logged  Lands  Occur,  Drainage 
in  the  United  States,  Arid  vs.  Humid  Drainage,  Soil 
Water  Moves,  Plans  for  Drainage  Lines  and  Sys- 
tems, The  Depth  of  Drains,  Soil- Water  Wells,  the 
Kind  of  Drains,  Precautions,  Clogging  of  the  Drainage 
System  by  Roots,  Advantages  of  a  Drained  Soil. 


FARM  MACHINERY 

XXIII  Machinery  for  Plowing  and  Cultivating 161 

Kinds  of  Plows,  Shares,  Plow  Bottoms,  The  Set  of 
a  Plow,  The  Sulky  Plow,  The  Two-Way  Sulky  Plow, 
The  Disk  Plow,  The  Subsoil  Plow,  Traction  Engines, 
Disk  Harrow,  Spike-Tooth  Harrow,  The  Spring-Tooth 
Harrow,  Cultivators. 

XXIV  Machinery  for  Seeding  and  Harvesting 170 

Drills,  Mower,  Rake,  Binder,  Header  and  Combined 
Harvester  and  Thresher,  Hay  Stackers,  Wagons,  Beet 
Digger,  Potato  Digger,  Fanning  Mill,  Pumps,  Power 
on  the  Farm,  The  Automobile,  Care  of  Farm  Machin- 
ery. 

XXV    Grain  Crops 181 

Wheat,  Corn,  Oats,  Barley,  Rye,  Emmer,  The  Grain 
Sorghums,  Buckwheat,  Rice. 


10 


WESTERN  AORICULTURE 


Chapter 
XXVI 


xxvn 


xxvm 


xxix 


XXX 


XXXI 


xxxn 


xxxni 

XXXIV 


CROPS 


Forage  Crops 192 

Alfalfa,  The  Clovers:  Red  Clover,  Alsike  Clover, 
White  Clover,  Crimson  Clover,  Sweet  Clover,  Other 
Legumes:  Field  Peas,  The  Cowpea,  The  Soy  Bean, 
Vetch,  The  Grasses:  Timothy,  Kentucky  Blue  Grass, 
Orchard  Grass,  Smooth  Brome  Grass,  Redtop,  Millets. 

Sugar  Beets  and  Other  Roots 201 

Sugar  Beets:  History,  Production,  Conditions  of 
Growth,  Seeding,  Thinning,  Cultivation,  Irrigation, 
Harvesting,  Uses,  Seed,  Rotation,  Importance,  Other 
Roots:  Mangel-wurzel,  Turnips,  Rutaoagas,  Carrots. 

Potatoes 208 

The  Potato  Plant,  The  Tuber  is  Not  a  Seed,  The 
Potato  Wanted,  Good  Quality,  Seed  Bed,  Seed,  Cut- 
ting Seed,  Planting,  Cultivation,  Irrigation,  Harvest- 
ing, Prices  and  Markets,  Storing,  Varieties. 

Orchard  Fruits 217 

Soil,  Nursery  Stock,  Pruning  the  Young  Tree,  Prun- 
ing the  Mature  Tree,  Thinning  the  Fruit,  Cultiva- 
tion, Picking  and  Storing,  Varieties  of  Fruit. 

Small  Fruits 233 

Bush  Fruit  Culture:  Soil,  Fertilizers,  Care  of  Young 
Plants,  Setting  the  Plants,  Soil  Management,  Prun- 
ing, Propagation,  Picking  the  Fruit,  Strawberry 
Culture:  Propagation  and  Culture,  Pollination  and 
Varieties,  Tillage,  Irrigation,  Picking,  Marketing, 
Grape  Culture:  Varieties. 

The  Vegetable  Garden 242 

Size,  Hardy  Vegetables,  Tender  Vegetables,  Classes 
of  Vegetables,  Root  Crops,  Bulb  Crops,  The  Cole 
Crops,  The  Salad  Crops,  Solanaceous  Crops,  Cucur- 
bitaceous  Crops,  Leguminous  Crops,  Sweet  Corn, 
Perennial   Crops,   Commercial   Gardening. 

Pastures 253 

Permanent  and  Temporary  Pastures,  Quality  of 
Pasture,  Importance,  Wild  Plants,  Crop  Plants, 
Mixed  Plants,  For  DifTerent  Animals,  Improving 
Pastures,  Rotation. 

PLANT  ENEMIES 

Weeds 262 

What  Is  a  Weed,  Injury  Done  by  Weeds,  Duration, 
Dissemination,  Weed  Laws,  Extermination,  Spraying. 

Plant  Diseases 270 

Classification,  Slime  Mold  Diseases:  Club  Root  of 
Cal)bage,  Diseases :  Pear  Blight,  Crown  Gall,  Fungous 
Diseases:  Gooseberry  Mildew,  Potato  Scab,  Covered, 
or  Stinking,  Smut  of  Wheat,  Diseases  Caused  by 
Flowering  Plants :  Dodder. 


CONTENTS 


11 


Chapter  Page 

XXXV     Control  of  Insect  Pests 282 

Feeding  Habits,  Codling  Moth,  Spraying,  Scale  In- 
sects, Spraying,  Arsenic  Bran-Mash,  Culture  Meth- 
ods. 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTION 


XXXVI    Beef  Cattle. 


Meat  Production,  Beef  Types,  The  Feeden.  The  Fat 
Animal,  The  Carcass,  Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle:  Short- 
horn, Polled  Durham,  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus, 
Galloway,  Dual-Purpose  Type  of  Cattle :  Red  Polled, 
Devon, 


289 


xxxvn 


Dairy  Cattle 297 

The  Dairy  Type:  The  Udder,  Milk  Veins,  Barrel, 
Chest,  Temperament,  Conformation,  Dairy  Bulls, 
Dairy  Breeds:  The  Jersey,  The  Holstein-Fresian 
Cattle,  Guernsey  Cattle,  Ayshire,  Brown  Swiss. 

XXXVm    The  Horse 313 

History,  In  General  Appearance,  Conformation,  Ac- 
tion, Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses:  The  Saddle  Type, 
The  Roadster  Type,  The  Coach,  or  Carriage,  Type, 
The  Draft  Type. 

XXXIX     The  Hog 326 

The  Lard  Type:  Breeds,  The  Berkshire,  Poland 
China,  The  Duroc  Jersey,  Chester  White;  The  Bacon 
Type:  Breeds,  The  Large  Yorkshire,  The  Tamworth, 
The  Hampshire. 

Sheep  Management 333 

Care  and  Food,  Breed  to  Select,  Conformation, 
Breeding,  Ewes,  Lambing,  Spring  Care,  Summer 
Care,  Feeding  Lambs,  Winter  Care,  Care  of  Ewes, 
Shearing,  Dipping  Sheep,  Dipping  Plant. 

Poultry 345 

Choice  of  Breeds,  The  Egg  Breeds,  The  Meat  Breeds, 
The  General  Purpose  Breeds,  The  Fancy  Breeds, 
Location  and  Housing,  Feeds  and  Feeding,  Incuba- 
tion and  Brooding,  Marketing. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals 

Classes  of  Food,  Water  and  Dry  Matter,  Protein, 
Carbohydrates,  Fats,  Ash,  Digestibility,  A  Good 
Ration,  A  Balanced  Ration,  Adaptation  to  the  Ani- 
mal, Palatability,  Quality  of  Product,  Economy  of 
Ration  Used,  Feeding  the  Animal,  Horses,  Dairy 
Cows,  Beef  Cattle,  Sheep,  Hogs. 

XLIII    The  Care  of  Animals 

Causes  of  Disease:  Confinement  in  Close  Quarters, 
Overfeeding,  Poisonous  Plants,  Bad  or  Irregular 
Water,  Poor  Ventilation,  Parasites,  Germs,  The 
Teeth,  The  Feet,  Heredity,  Prevention  of  Disease: 
Grooming,  Disinfection,  Quarantine,  Disposal  of 
Carcasses,  Accidents  and  Treatment  of  Wounds. 


XL 


XLI 


XLH 


359 


370 


12 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Chapter 
XLIV 


XLV 


XLVI 


XLVn 


XLVIII 


XLIX 


LI 


LU 


LHI 


AGRICULTURAL  MANUFACTURES 

Page 

Sugar  and  Flour 379 

Sugar:  Cane  Sugar,  Louisiana,  Hawaii  and  Cuba, 
Beet  Sugar:  History,  In  the  United  States,  Russia, 
Storage  Bins,  Removing  the  Juice,  Purifying  the 
Juice,  Concentration,  Sugar  Crystals,  Flour:  Milling 
of  Wheat,  Bleaching  Agents,  Flour  Content. 

MiUk  and  Its  Products 388 

Milk  Secretion,  Milk  Composition,  Fat  Percentages, 
Milk  Testing,  Babcock  Test,  Cream  Separation,  The 
Cream  Separator,  Butter  Making,  Cheese  Making. 

FARM  BUILDINGS 

Dwelling  Houses 401 

Cost  of  House,  Planning  the  House,  Location,  Ex- 
posure, Arrangement  of  Rooms,  Conveniences,  What 
Rooms  to  Have,  Lighting,  Heating. 

Farm  Buildings 407 

Layout,  Site,  Barns,  Bam  Fixtures,  Hog  Houses, 
Poultry  Houses,  Silos. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Improvement  of  Plants  and  Animals 414 

Mendel's  Law,  The  Ideal  Sought,  Basis  of  Selection, 
Hereditary  Power,  Transmission  of  Characters,  How 
Improvement  Comes,  Practical  Applications. 

Light  and  Water  Supply ". .  423 

Light:  The  Eye-Strain,  Bacteria,  Artificial  Light, 
Water:  Hard  and  Soft  Water,  Bacteria  in  Water, 
Sources  of  Water,  Purification  of  Water. 

Good  Roads  and  the  Telephone 429 

Roads:  History,  Traction  Factors,  What  a  Horse 
Can  Do,  Types  of  Roads,  Earth  Roads,  Gravel  Roads, 
Macadam  Roads,  Concrete  Roads,  Sand-Clay  Roads, 
The  Telephone:  Mechanism  of  the  Telephone. 

The  Farm  Communihr 436 

Problems  of  Rural  Communities,  Rural  Depopula- 
tion, Causes  of  Rural  Migration,  Rural  Recreation, 
Rural  Health  and  Sanitation,  The  Rural  School,  The 
Country  Church. 

Marketing  Farm  Products 446 

Specialization  in  Agriculture,  The  Middleman, 
Marketing  of  Farm  Crops,  Co-operative  Marketing, 
Farmers'  AsvSociations,  Organization,  Stock-Holding, 
Obligation  of  Growers,  The  Manager. 

The  Farm  Home 453 

Home  Furniture,  Home  Art,  Home  Reading,  Home 
Food,  Cost  of  Foods,  Home  Amusements,  Health, 
Adjustment  to  Duties,  Home  Finances,  Home  Rights. 


'^  Green  are  the  waiting  fields  of  toil^ 

With  wild  flowers  blossoming  and  sweet, 
The  living  wealth  no  thief  can  spoil, 
The  boundless  treasures  of  the  soil, 
Poured  in  profusion  at  our  feet.'' 


Western  Agriculture 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PLANT 


The  plaivt  has  various  stages  through  which  it  passes 
from  the  germination  of  the  dormant  seed  to  maturity; 
These  various  stages  in  any  common  flowering  plant  consist 
of  (1)  the  dormant  seed,  (2)  germination,  (3)  growth,  (4) 
flowering,  and  (5)  fruiting.  The  hfe  history  of  a  plant  may 
last  but  a  few  weeks  or  for  years  and  even  centuries. 

Structure  of 
Seeds.  'The  seed 
is  a  miniature  plant, 
or  embryo,  with  some 
accessory  parts,  in  a 
resting,  or  dormant, 
condition  and  cap- 
able, under  suitable 
conditions,  of  ?  repro- 
ducing the  .kind  of 
plant  which  bore  it." 
The  embryo  consists 
of  three  parts:  (1) 
the  young  bud,  (2) 
the  seed  leaves,  or 
cotyledons,  and  (3) 
the  young  stem.  It 
may  constitute  all 
or  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  seed,  depending  solely 
upon  the  kind  of  plant  from  which  the  seed  came.  The 
accessory  parts  of  the  seed  constitute  the  seed  coats  and  the 


Figure  1. — A,  longitudinal  section  through  acorn 
seed,  with  embryo  lying  in  endosperm  (seen 
flatwise) ;  B,  longitudinal  section  through  seed 
and  embryo  (seen  in  profile);  C,  embryo  re- 
moved, showing  (1)  cotyledon,  (2)  plumule,  (3) 
hypocotyl.      (Lauritzen.) 


Figure  2. — Bean  seed:  A,  raphe;  B,  chaiaza;  C, 
nilum;  D,  micropyle;  E,  cotyledon;  F,  hypoco- 
tyl; G,  plumule.      (Lauritzen.) 


16  /.   :  ;  ,;    -;  ,.   WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

food  material  enclosed  within  them  and  surrounding  the 
embryo.  In  some  instances,  however,  as  already  mentioned, 
all  the  food  material  is  stored  within  the  cotyledons  and  in 
such  cases  the  embryo  is  enclosed  within  the  seed  coats. 
The  accessory  parts  then  serve  mainly  as  protection  for  the 
embryo,  until  it  becomes  established  for  itself  in  the  soil. 

Composition  of  Seeds.  The  food  material  in  seeds,  aside 
from  water,  commonly  belongs  to  four  groups:  (1)  the  car- 
bohydrates, (2)  proteins,  (3)  oils,  and  (4)  mineral  matter. 
The  carbohydrates,  such  substances  as  sugars  and  starches, 
are  made  up  of  the  elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
in  various  combinations.  Proteins  are  compounds  which 
contain  nitrogen  in  addition  to  these  three  elements  and 
sometimes  phosphorus  and  sulphur.  Their  presence  can  be 
detected  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid  to  por- 
tions of  the  tissue  and  then  heating.  A  pale  yellow  color 
appears.  Rinse  in  water,  add  a  little  ammonia  and  a  deep 
orange  color  will  appear.  Oils  are  very  complex  compounds 
and  are  often  detected  in  plants  by  the  use  of  an  acid  called 
osmic  acid,  which  colors  them  brownish  or  brownish  black. 
Mineral  matter  consists  of  such  inorganic  substances  as 
iron,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus. 

Purpose  of  Seeds.  Seeds  serve  a  triple  purpose:  (1) 
continuation,  (2)  multiplication,  and  (3)  distribution  of  the 
plant.  They  are  especially  adapted  for  continuation  of  the 
plant  from  year  to  year.  Being  dry,  they  withstand  much 
better  than  the  green,  tender  parts  all  conditions  which  cause 
death.  Every  plant  is  struggling  with  every  other  plant  for 
space,  food  and  light.  The  more  plants  of  a 'particular 
kind  in  a  given  locality,  the  better  their  chance  of  success; 
hence,  the  value  of  producing  many  seeds  to  insure  the 
gaining  of  a  foothold  for  continuation  and  multiplication. 
Distribution  is  also  closely  coupled  with  these  problems. 
Since  a  plant  is  a  living,  growing  thing,  food  is  required 
to  sustain  its  life  and  vital  activities.    The  problem  of  this 


LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PLANT  17 

food  supply  is,  therefore,  rendered  less  difficult  by  the  dis- 
semination of  the  seeds  to  new  fields. 

Germination.  It  is  very  important  to  remember  that, 
although  the  seed  is  dry,  the  embryo  is  alive  and  is  in  a  rest- 
ing, or  dormant,  state.  With  proper  conditions  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  rest  period,  it  awakes  from  its  sleep  and  grows. 
This  awakening  and  growing  is  known  as  germination. 

The  conditions  essential  to  germination  may  be  properly 
classified  as  internal  and  external.  The  internal  are  those 
which  favor  within  the  seed  the  production  of  substances 
called  ferments,  or  enzymes,  which  change  the  composition 
of  the  insoluble  material  (the  stored-up  foods),  such  as 
starches,  proteins,  and  oils,  into  soluble  form.  The  external 
conditions  are  suitable  temperature  and  proper  amounts  of 
water,  together  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  oxygen.  Some 
seeds  will  germinate  immediately  after  production;  others 
require  a  resting  period  before  internal  conditions  permit 
germination — even  though  external  factors  are  suitable. 

When  the  conditions  for  germination  are  supplied  at  the 
proper  time,  the  seed  absorbs  water  and  swells.  The  young 
plant  begins  to  respire,  or  breathe,  more  freely  than  it  has 
been  doing  while  in  the  dormant  condition;  hence  the  neces- 
sity of  a  plentiful  supply  of  oxygen.  During  the  processes 
of  respiration,  oxygen  is  consumed  and  carbon  dioxide  is 
liberated.  The  stored  foods  are  made  soluble  to  supply  the 
demands  of  the  growing  embryo.  Certain  changes  in  form 
now  come  about  in  the  young  plant. 

The  miniature  stem  and  bud  elongate,  pushing  their  way 
through  the  seed  coats  into  the  soil.  The  stem  forms  roots 
at  its  lower  extremity.  If  the  portion  of  the  stem  above 
the  roots  and  below  the  cotyledons  continues  to  elongate, 
the  cotyledons  may  be  lifted  or  pushed  out  of  the  soil.  If 
it  does  not  continue  to  elongate  after  the  roots  are  formed, 
the  cotyledons  remain  buried.  One  part  of  the  stem  elevates 
the  bud  into  the  air  where  its  leaves  expand.     When  these 

2— 


18 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  3. — A,  corn  seedling,  show- 
ing manner  of  germination;  B, 
bean  seedling  in  process  of  germi- 
nation. 


first  true  leaves  have  expanded, 
the  plant  is  ready  to  shift  for 
itself  and  germination  is  said  to 
be  completed. 

The  Cell.  To  understand 
how  germination  phenomena 
take  place,  it  is  essential  to  know 
that  the  plant  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  small  parts,  or  units, 
called  cells.  If  any  part  of  the 
plant  were  very  highly  magni- 
fied, these  cells  would  appear  as 
closed  boxes  or  compartments.  That  which  corresponds  to 
the  walls  of  the  box  is  the  cell-wall.  This  encloses  a  sub- 
stance called  cytoplasm,  which  resembles  the  white  of  an  egg. 
Within  the  cytoplasm  lie  the  heavier  nucleus  and  other 
bodies  known  as  plastids,  and  surrounding  it  is  a  membrane 
known  as  the  plasma  membrane.  All  these  parts  enclosed 
by  the  cell-wall  are  alive  an^  constitute  the  only  living  parts 
of  the  plant.  The  cell-wall  is  not  alive,  but  is  made  from 
the  cytoplasm. 

Growth.  Growth  and  development 
of  the  plant  have  to  do  with  change 
of  the  cells.  The  cell  increases  in 
size  and  finally  divides  to  form  two 
new  cells.  These  may  divide  again 
and  again  as  long  as  the  plant  lives. 
Size  depends,  then,  on  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  cells  as  well  as  their 
enlargement. 

All  parts  of   the   plant   are  not 
alike.     There  are  the  stems,   buds, 
leaves,   and   roots  —  different   parts 
known  to  everyone.     Any  part,  for       ^'f^I'^cyt^Falj^Nr  nJ: 
instance  the  leaf,  examined  carefully         ceir-waii.'  dau'riuen.r' 


LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PLA^'T 


19 


under  a  microscope  is  seen  to  con- 
sist of  cells  of  various  shapes 
and  sizes.  Likewise,  any  part  of 
the  stem,  bud  or  root,  will  show  a 
difference  in  the  form  of  the  cells : 
Thus,  along  with  growth,  which 
is  due  to  an  increase  in  the  number 
and  size  of  cells,  comes  a  devel- 
opment called  differentiation, 
which  is  due  to  a  change  in  the 
shape  and  in  the  arrangement 
of  cells  according  to  the  work 
they  do. 

The  production  of  new  cells  is 
limited  to  rather  definite  areas  in 
the  flowering  plant.  In  the  stem, 
it  is  limited  to  the  region  of  the 
very  tip  and  to  a  ring  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood.  In  the 
root,  active  division  occurs  just  back  of  the  tip,  which  is 
called  the  rootcap.  The  region  of  elongation  extends  beyond 
the  region  of  active  division  of  cells  for  some  distance.  As 
a  result  of  these  growth  processes  a  plant  is  produced 
which  finally  flowers  and  fruits. 

Flowering.  The  function 
of  a  flower  is  the  production  of 
fruit,  which  contains  the  seed. 
Flowers  are  of  various  colors 
and  shapes — some  gorgeous 
and  showy;  others  plain  and 
simple.  Some  a  re  borne  singly ; 
others  in  clusters;  but,  what- 
ever the  difference  is,  they  all 
have  the  same  function  to  per- 


Figure  5. — Longitudinal  section  of 
root  tip,  showing:  A,  epidermis; 
B,  root  hair;  C,  intermediate 
layer  between  epidermis  and 
central  cylinder  E;  D,  endoder- 
mis;  F,  growing'region;  G,  root- 
cap.      (Richards.) 


form — the  production  of  seed. 


Figure  6. — Diagrammatic  section  of 
flower,  showing:  A,  petal;  B,  sta- 
men; C,  pistil;  D,  sepal.  (Richards.) 


20 


WESTERN  AORICULTURE 


The  organs  of  the  flower  are  either  essential  or  nones- 
sential. The  essential  organs  consist  of  stamens  and  pistils, 
which  are  located  in  the  central  part  of  the  flower.  The 
stamen  consists  of  filament  and  anther.  The  anther  bears 
the  pollen  grains  which  contain  the 
male  sexual  cells  (male  gametes);  the 
pistil  consists  of  stigma,  style,  and 
ovule  sac.  The  stigma  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  pistil,  and  secretes  a  sticky- 
substance  which  causes  pollen  grains 
to  stick  to  it.  The  style  is  the  middle 
portion.  The  lower  swollen  part  of 
the  pistil  is  the  ovule  sac,  which  con- 
tains the  ovules.  Within  the  ovule  the 
female  sexual  cell  is  produced  in  a  little 
sac  which  is  called  the  embryo  sac.  It 
is  usually  necessary  that  these  male 
and  female  cells  unite  in  order  to  pro- 
duce the  seed.  The  pollen  grain  is 
transferred  by  some  agent  to  the  stig- 
ma, where  it  germinates  and  grows 
down  through  the  style  into  the  ovule, 
carrying  the  male  gamete  with  it.  A 
union  between  the  gametes  now  takes 
place.  This  union  of  the  gametes  is 
known  as  fertilization,  while  the  trans- 
fer of  pollen  to  the  stigma  is  known  as  pollination. 

The  nonessential  organs  of  the  flower  are  usually  called 
floral  envelopes  and  are  the  corollu  and  calyx.  The  latter, 
which  is  the  outer  one,  is  usually  green,  while  the  corolla, 
the  inner,  is  usually  highly  colored.  These  floral  envelopes 
are  called  nonessential,  because  they  are  not  necessary  to 
produce  a  new  seed. 

Fruiting.  After  fertilization  has  taken  place,  the  fer- 
tilized cell  grows  into  the  embryo.     One  of  the  other  cells 


Figure  7. — Diagram  of  pis- 
til, showing:  A,  pollen 
tube  growing  down 
through  style;  B,  three 
antipodal  cells  in  em- 
bryo sacj  C,  fusion  nu- 
cleus which  grows  into 
endosperm;  D,  egg 
(center)  and  two  syn- 
dergids  (helpers)  in  em- 
bryo sac;  E,  mycropyle. 
(Lauritzen.) 


LIFE  HISTORY  OF  THE  PLANT  21 

within  the  sac,  together  with  the  other  parts  of  the  young 
ovule,  grows  into  the  accessory  parts  of  the  seed  and  the 
seed  coats.  After  maturity  of  the  seed,  it  passes  into  the 
dormant  condition  to  await  the  time  when  it  can  spring 
into  renewed  activity  and  produce  a  plant  which  may  pass 
through  the  same  stages  that  have  just  been  described. 

The  flowering  and  fruiting  stages  of  some  plants  occur 
during  the  first  year;  in  others,  during  the  second.  Still 
other  plants  require  more  than  two  years  in  which  to  pro- 
duce flowers  and  fruit.  These  usually  continue  to  produce 
seeds  year  after  year  before  dying. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  seed? 

2.  Name  the  parts  of  a  seed. 

3.  Give  the  composition  of  a  seed. 

4.  What  purposes  do  seeds  serve? 

5.  Describe  germination. 

6.  Give  conditions  favorable  to  it. 

7.  Describe  a  cell. 

8.  How  does  growth  take  place? 

9.  Describe  a  flower,  stating  use  and  value  of  each  part  and  of  the 

whole  flower. 
10.     Name  and  state  the  principal  point  in  each  stage  of  the  life  of 
flowering  plants. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  seeds  of  corn,  peanut,  bean,  and  squash.     Note  the  external 

appearance  of  each  kind  of  seed;  cut  longitudinal  sections  of  the 
corn;  open  the  two  halves  of  the  peanut,  bean,  and  squash.  In 
each  case  find  (a)  stored-up  food;  (b)  cotyledons;  (c)  the  young 
bud;  (d)  the  young  root;  (e)  note  the  position  of  the  embryo 
in  each  case,  the  location  of  the  stored-up  food  and  the  nature 
of  the  seed  covering. 

2.  Secure  bean  or  squash  seeds.    Test  them  for  germination  as  follows : 

(a)  Entirely  cover  twenty-five  seeds  with  water. 

(b)  Partly   submerge   another   twenty-five  seeds,  keeping  the 

micropyle  end  above  water. 

(c)  Using  another  twenty-five  seeds  put  them  on  absorbent 

cotton  moistened  with  water  and  cover  with  a  plate. 
Note  results  after  two,  four  and  six  days. 


22  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


3.  Place  three  other  sets  of  twenty-five  seeds  on  moist  cotton  as 

called  for  in  (c).  Put  one  of  these  lots  at  freezing  temperature; 
put  another  in  an  oven  at  100°  C;  and  keep  the  third  at  or- 
dinary temperature  as  a  check.  Note  results  after  two  days; 
four  days;  six  days. 

4.  Use  a  pea  that  has  germinated  and  has  a  root  about  an  inch  long. 

With  India  ink  mark  off  spaces  of  He  of  an  inch.  Pin  to  a  cork 
and  float  in  a  pan  of  water.  After  twenty-four  hours,  and 
again  after  forty-eight  liours,  note  the  distance  between  the 
marks.  Where  has  growth  taken  place?  Do  the  same  to  the 
stem  and  find  out  in  what  region  growth  has  taken  place  in  the 
stem. 

REFERENCES 

Practical  Course  in  Botany,  Andrews. 
Botany, — An  Elementary  Textbook,  Bailey. 
Practical  Botany,  Bergen  and  Caldwell. 
The  Living  Plant,  Ganong. 
Plants  and  Their  Uses,  Sargent. 
Introduction  to  Botany,  Stevens. 
Experiments  with  Plants,  Osterhout. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  157.     The  Propagation  of  Plants. 
195.    Annual  Flowering  Plants. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PLANT  IN  RELATION  TO  TEMPERATURE  AND 

AIR 

The  plant,  like  any  other  living  thing,  is  influenced  by 
its  surroundings.  Certain  factors  directly  or  indirectly  are 
always  at  work  determining  whether  the  plant  shall  survive 
or  perish.  In  considering  any  one  of  these  factors  it  must 
be  remembered  that  others  are  at  work  at  the  same  time. 
The  principal  factors  to  be  noted  now  are  temperature,  wind, 
and  oxygen.  Carbon  dioxide,  water  and  light  will  be  studied 
in  the  following  chapters. 

Temperatxire  Relation.  In  passing  from  tropical  to 
frigid  regions,  the  vegetation  also  changes,  principally  as  a 
result  of  change  of  temperature.  The  earth  is  divided  into 
zones,  each  of  which  has  vegetation  differing  from  that  of 
any  other,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  study  the  whole  world 
to  see  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  plant. 

We  all  know  that  in  the  warm  days  of  spring,  when  the 
peach  tree  has  finished  its  winter  rest,  it  starts  growth  anew 
and  bursts  quickly  into  bloom.  Following  this  warm  spring 
period,  a  freeze  may  ensue  and  the  flowers  be  frozen,  causing 
an  entire  loss  of  the  peach  crop  for  that  year.  The  same 
injury  often  happens  to  many  of  the  other  fruits,  such  as 
pears,  apples,  plums,  cherries,  strawberries,  and  raspberries. 
Every  one  has  seen  lucern  and  potatoes  frozen  in  the  fall. 
Thus  slight  changes  in  temperature  may  affect  the  plant, 
determining  whether  it  shall  succeed  or  perish. 

Cardinal  Temperatures.  Critical  temperatures  recog- 
nized for  plants  are  maximum,  optimum,  and  minimum. 
The  maximum  and  minimum  are  the  highest  and  lowest 
temperatures,   respectively,   at  which  growth  takes  place. 

23 


24 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  optimum  is  not  so  definite  as  the  other  two — that  is, 
it  embraces  a  greater  range  of  temperature.  It  is  that 
temperature  at  which  the  plant  makes  the  best  growth. 
Every  phase  of  the  plant,  such  as  flowering,  fruiting,  or  ger- 
mination has  its  own  critical  temperatures.  They  are  called 
cardinal  temperatures.  The  following  table  shows  these  car- 
dinal points  »f or.  a  number  of  our  common  cultivated  plants. 
It  is  seen  that  these  temperatures  often  differ. 

Table  I. — Cardinal  Temperatures  for  Growth 

Degrees  Fahrenheit* 

Maximum 


Oats 

Rye 

Wheat.... 
Barley .... 

Corn 

Pumpkins . 
Melon .... 
Cucumber . 


Minimum 

Optimum 

0-  40.6 

77-  87.8 

0-  40.6 

77-  87.8 

0-  40.6 

77-  87.8 

0-  50.6 

77-  87.8 

40.6-  50.9 

98.6-111.2 

50.9-  60.1 

98.6-111.2 

60.1-  65.3 

87.8-  96.8 

60.1-  65.3 

87.8-100.4 

98.6-111.2 
111.2-122 
87.8-  98.6 
87.8-  98.6 
111.2-122 
111.2-122 
111.2-122 
111.2-122 


*B.  M.  Duggar,  Plant  Physiology,  Page  403.  1911. 

The  limits  of  temperature  depend  upon  the  particular 
kind  of  plant  and  the  amount  of  water  it  contains.  The 
more  water  in  a  plant,  the  more  easily  affected  it  is  by  high 
or  low  temperature.  The  less  water  in  a  plant  the  more 
resistant  it  is.  To  state  these  facts  briefly,  we  often  use  the 
following  expression:  * 'Susceptibility  to  temperature  is  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  water  contained  in  the  plant." 

Highest  and  Lowest  Temperatures ;  Death.  Some  plants 
are  killed  at  113  degrees  Fahrenheit,  but  more  can  bear  heat 
up  to  122  degrees  Fahrenheit.  There  are  still  other  plants 
that  can  withstand  a  temperature  near  the  boiling  point  of 
water,  as  some  of  the  pond  scums  and  bacteria.  Even 
boiling  for  a  short  time  will  not  kill  some  of  these.  What 
causes  death  at  high  temperature  is  not  tiefinitely  known. 
But  the  death  of  a  plant  by  cold  may  be  explained  in  either 
of  two  ways:     (1)  the  freezing  is  a  drying  out  process;  that 


PLANT  RELATIONS  TO  TEMPERATURE  AND  AIR         25 

is,  the  water  in  the  cell  is  withdrawn  below  that  required  for 
growth  activity;  or  (2),  the  living  parts  of  the  cell  may  be 
killed  on  account  of  the  sensitiveness  of  the  protoplasm. 
This  latter  reason  may  account  for  a  plant's  dying  from  cold, 
although  the  freezing  point  has  not  been  reached.  Again, 
other  plants  may  not  die  until  very  low  temperatures  are 
attained.     Some  plants  flower  at  40  degrees  below  zero. 

Bud  Protection.  Most  of  us  have  pulled  buds  apart. 
Some  are  very  sticky,  because  they  have  a  covering  of  rosin  ; 
others  are  hairy,  and  nearly  all  are  covered  with  scales. 
The  rosin,  scales,  and  hairs  are  provisions  of  nature  for  the 
protection  of  buds  during  the  winter.  They  are  not  a  pro- 
tection from  extreme  cold  so  much  as  from  drying  and  from 
sudden  changes  of  temperature.  These  contrivances  serve 
their  purposes  effectively. 

Wind  Relations.  The  wind  is  a  factor  which  emphasizes 
greatly  all  other  factors,  especially  any  factor  which  is 
working  unfavorably.  As  illustration,  it  may  be  noted  that 
in  a  region  already  dry,  the  dry  wind  increases  the  dryness 
by  increasing  evaporation.  When  cold  conditions  prevail, 
the  cold  is  augmented  by  cold  winds.  Plants  have  greater 
difficulty,  therefore,  in  withstanding  cold  in  regions  in  which 
cold  winds  prevail.  Warm  periods  are  likely  to  cause  in- 
jury when  they  are  accompanied  by  dry  winds.  On  the 
other  hand,  free  air  drainage  prevents  freezing  by  moving 
cold  air  away.       Calm  places  are  called  cold  pockets. 

Wind  is  sometimes  an  important  hindrance  to  man,  in 
the  dissemination  of  weeds  and  obnoxious  plants.  Wind  is, 
however,  valuable  to  vegetation  in  bringing  new  supplies  of 
carbon  dioxide  to  the  plant,  and  in  transferring  pollen  from 
one  part  of  a  plant  to  another,  or  from  one  plant  to  anothe];. 
This  wind  transportation  of  pollen  is  an  absolute  necessity 
with  such  plants  as  corn,  box  elder,  pine,  and  cedar. 

Oxygen  Relation.  Plants  as  well  as  animals  require 
oxygen.    While  most  plants  obtain  it  directly  from  the  air, 


26 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


a  few  may  obtain  it  indirectly  through  the  breaking  down  of 
substances  which  contain  it.  The  process  deaHng  with  the 
consumption  of  oxygen  is  known  as  respiration. 

Respiration.   Respiration  in  plants  and  animals  is  alike, 
if  we  exclude  the  process  whereby  the  oxygen  is  taken  in. 

In   plants,   air   con- 


taining  oxygen 
passes  in  through 
the  stomata  and 
lenticels  (special 
openings  through  the 
bark)  and  then 
through  small  spaces 
between  the  cells  to 
the  places  where  it  is 
needed.  In  animals 
air  passes  through 
the  respiratory 
organs,  the  last  of 
which  is  the  lungs,  and  through  these  into  the'  blood, 
which  carries  it  to  the  cells  in  the  various  tissues  of  the 
body.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  it  is  in  the  living  cells, 
whether  in  plant  or  animal,  that  the  process  of  respiration 
takes  place.  Respiration,  in  more  detail,  is  a  process 
whereby  the  consumed  oxygen  sets  up  a  long,  complex 
series  of  changes  in  the  substances  of  a  cell.  Accompany- 
ing these  changes,  energy  is  released.  This  energy 
causes  growth  and  development  and  keeps  up  all  those 
processes  accompanying  the  manifestation  of  life.  With- 
out this  energy,  the  plants  are  unable  to  sustain  them- 
selves and  must  die.  Wherever  respiration  occurs,  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  is  decreased,  the  carbon  dioxide  is  in- 
creased, and  heat  is  released.  The  thing  of  fundamental 
importance,  however,  is  that  energy,  which  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  life,  is  released. 


Figure  8. — Cross-section  of  portion  of  leaf,  show- 
ing: A,  stem  air  chamber;  E,  epidermi?i;  F,  fi- 
brovascular  bundle;  P,  palisade  cells;  S,  air 
spaces;  St,  stomata.      (Richards.) 


PLANT  RELATIONS  TO  TEMPERATURE  AND  AIR         27 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  principal  factors  determining  plant  growth. 

2.  Show  how  temperature  affects  plants. 

3.  What  temperatures  can  plants  endure? 

4.  What  is  death? 

5.  How  are  buds  protected  against  cold? 

6.  How  are  wind  and  frost  related? 

7.  What  is  respiration?     Describe  it  in  plants. 

8.  From  where  do  plants  get  energy  for  their  life  processes? 

9.  Why  is  oxygen  so  important? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1 .  If  a  microscope  is  available,  make  thin  cross-sections  of  a  geranium 

leaf  by  cuttmg  with  a  sharp  knife  or  razor.  The  leaf  is  best 
held  between  the  pieces  of  a  split  cork  or  in  paraffin.  Mount  in 
a  drop  of  water  on  a  slide  and  examine  under  the  microscope. 
Note  the  small  box-like  structures.  These  are  cells.  Note  dif- 
ferent shapes  of  cells.     Make  an  outline  drawing  and  label. 

2.  After  the  first  frost  in  the  fall  take  a  field  trip  either  to  the  moun- 

tains or  the  cultivated  fields.  Note  the  effect  of  frost  on  vege- 
tation. Is  it  the  same  on  all  kinds  of  plant  life?  Is  the  entire 
plant  killed  in  all  cases?  If  not,  why?  Observe  at  least  ten 
kinds  of  plants  and  tabulate  your  observation,  giving  result 
of  the  frost  on  each  plant  observed.  What  is  the  effect  of  the 
frost  in  different  parts  of  the  fields?  Can  you  see  any  effect 
from  topography  of  the  land?  In  wet  and  dry  soils?  Write 
in  detail  the  observations  you  made  on  this  trip. 

3.  In  a  field  study  note  what  is  happening  to  some  of  the  seeds  through 

the  agency  of  wind.  Note  the  devices  on  such  seeds  as  the 
dandelion,  milkweed,  willow  herb,  thistle,  box  elder,  etc.,  which 
enable  the  wind  to  scatter  them  Report  the  names  of  all  the 
plants  that  you  find  dependent  upon  wind  for  seed  dispersal. 
Make  a  collection  of  such  seeds. 

REFERENCES 

Practical  Course  in  Botany,  Andrews. 
Botany,  An  Elementary  Text-book,  Bailey. 
Practical  Botany,  Bergen  and  Caldwell. 
Agronomy,  Clute. 
The  Living  Plant,  Ganong. 
Introduction  to  Botany,  Stevens. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  PLANT  AND  SUNSHINE 

Persons  of  wealth  feel  they  are  self-sufficient  and  in- 
dependent, but  it  is  easily  proved  that  they  are  not.  The 
work,  genius,  and  exertion  of  former  generations,  often 
produced  with  great  sacrifice,  minister  to  their  comfort. 
With  the  modern  division  of  labor,  products  and  services  are 
exchanged  and  they  are  indebted  to  public  institutions, 
such  £is  libraries,  schools,  and  churches.  They  are  thus  not 
only  dependent  on  one  another,  on  society,  and  former 
generations,  but  are,  as  members  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
dependent  on  plants  either  directly  by  using  them  as  food  or 
indirectly  through  eating  animals,  which  in  turn  eat  plants. 
Plants,  however,  procure  their  food  from  dead  or  mineral 
matter  by  means  of  sunlight.  Thus  all  life  is  dependent  upon 
the  silent  work  that  'the  leaves  of  plants  are  continually 
carrying  on  with  the  aid  of  sunlight. 

Chlorophyll  and  Photosynthesis.  Carbon  dioxide,  water, 
and  some  of  the  material  from  the  soil  that  the  soil  water 
has  dissolved,  are  used  by  plants.  This  solid  material  must 
exist  in  solution  in  soil,  if  plants  are  to  grow  in  it,  as  ex- 
plained elsewhere,  or  else  be  provided  as  fertilizer.  The 
water  containing  this  material  soaks  through  the  thin  walls 
of  the  little  root  hairs  and  travels  up  through  the  trunk, 
stem,  and  leaf  veins  out  into  the  leaves.  There  is  a  green 
substance  called  chlorophyll  in  nearly  all  common  plants 
except  mushrooms.  This  green  material  is  in  the  plant  only 
in  the  part  exposed  to  sunlight  and  is  formed  as  the  result 
of  the  action  of  light  when  oxygen  and  iron  are  present. 
It  is  a  tool  for  making  sugar  and  starches  from  the  carbon 
dioxide  gas  that  the  leaf  has  obtained  from  the  atmosphere 

28 


THE  PLANT  AND  SUNSHINE  29 

and  from  the  solution  taken  up  by  the  roots.  Associated 
with  this  transformation  of  carbon  dioxide  and  water  into 
sugar  and  starch  is  the  storage  of  large  quantities  of  heat 
and  light  energy  to  be  utilized  later.  The  carbon  dioxide 
is  consumed  and  oxygen  liberated.  This  operation  is  called 
photosynthesis  J  or  carbon  assimilation.  The  leaves  are  very 
thin  and  have  a  maximum  of  surface  exposed  to  the  sun- 
light. Photosynthesis  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  since 
directly  or  indirectly  all  plants  and  animals  depend  on  it  for 
their  food  supply. 

Light  Necessary.  The  light  of  the  interior  of  ordinary 
rooms  is  insufficient  for  the  vigorous  growth  of  most  plants. 
The  rate  of  carbon  assimilation  increases  with  the  illumina- 
tion up  to  a  light  intensity  equal  to  that  of  full  sunlight. 

Sunlight  can  readily  be  shown  to  be  composed  of  many 
colors  by  allowing  a  narrow  beam  to  pass  through  a  glass 
prism  when  a  colored  band  resembling  the  rainbow  and 
called  a  spectrum  will  be  formed.  It  has  been  shown,  by 
growing  plants  under  glass  of  different  colors,  that  the  yel- 
low and  orange  light  are  most  effective  and  the  blue  and 
violet  least  effective  in  making  the  starches  and  sugars  from 
carbon  dioxide  and  water.     The  chlorophyll,  of  course,  helps. 

Photosynthesis  and  Temperature.  Some  arctic  plants 
can  perform  this  work  at  temperatures  as  low  as  the  freez- 
ing point  of  water,  but  plants  of  warmer  climates  require  a 
higher  temperature.  The  rate  of  photosynthesis  usually 
increases  with  rise  of  temperature  up  to  about  77  degrees 
Fahrenheit  (25  degrees  Centigrade)  after  which  it  decreases. 

Transpiration.  There  are  on  the  leaves  thousands  of 
minute  openings  called  stomata,  that  lead  into  small  air 
chambers,  the  thin  walls  of  which  are  kept  moist  by  the 
juices  next  to  them.  An  interchange  of  gases  may  take 
place  through  these  walls  and  also  through  the  openings  to 
the  outside.  As  already  mentioned,  plants,  through  their 
roots,  are  continually  absorbing  water,  only  an  insignificant 


30  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

amount  of  which  is  used  in  photosynthesis.  A  good  deal  of 
it  is  useful  in  carrying  the  soluble  plant  foods  to  the  growing 
parts,  but  there  always  remains  a  large  part  to  be  thrown 
off.  The  process  of  giving  off  water  from  the  stomata  of 
plants  is  called  transpiration.  The  air  inside  the  chambers 
is  supplied  with  water  vapor  by  the  evaporation  from  the 
moist  walls.  This  moisture  escapes  through  the  stomata. 
The  rate  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  opening  which  in 
turn  is  regulated  by  the  so-called  guard  cells  that  are  on  the 
sides  of  the  openings.  When  plants  wilt,  because  the  weather 
is  warm,  the  air  dry,  or  the  wind  blowing,  the  openings  be- 
come small  to  prevent  loss  of  too  much  water.  Conversely, 
they  are  opened  in  damp  weather  and  sunlight,  if  the  plant 
is  fresh  and  vigorous. 

Respiration.  Plants  breathe  very  much  as  animals  do. 
In  the  lungs  of  animals  oxygen  is  absorbed  from  the  air,  and 
carbon  dioxide  together  with  moisture  is  returned  to  the  air. 
The  same  thing  happens  in  the  little  air  chambers  mentioned 
above,  the  oxygen  entering  the  stomata  and  then  the  thin 
moist  wall  surrounding  the  chamber.  Carbon  dioxide 
together  with  moisture  is  emitted.  Plants  are  found  to 
suffocate  without  fresh  air.  During  the  day  much  more 
oxygen  is  given  off  as  a  result  of  photosynthesis  than  is  used 
in  respiration;  hence,  oxygen  is  thrown  off  in  greater  excess 
than  carbon  dioxide,  so  that  plants  are  said  to  purify  the  air. 
At  night  no  carbon  assimilation  takes  place;  then  the  res- 
piration depletes  the  air  of  its  oxygen  and  tends  to  make  it 
unfit  for  animals. 

Coal,  coke,  and  graphite  are  forms  of  carbon,  and  wood  is 
about  half  carbon  as  shown  in  its  blackening  or  charring 
when  heated.  If  these  are  burned,  some  oxygen  unites  with 
the  carbon  and  forms  an  invisible  gas  called  carbon  dioxide. 
In  this  way  nearly  all  the  carbon  goes  up  the  chimney  in  the 
form  of  gas  and  is  later,  when  taken  in  by  plants,  deposited 
again  in  the  plant.     A  plant  or  an  animal  will  burn  almost 


THE  PLANT  AND  SUNSHINE  31 

completely,  leaving  but  a  small  amount  of  ash.  This  is 
mineral  that  was  brought  up  into  the  plant  by  the  soil 
water.  It  is  not  known  just  how  the  process  of  burning  is 
made  to  take  place  at  moderate  temperature  in  plants  and 
animals,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  slow  burning  is  always  going 
on.  This  burning  is  much  faster  in  animals  than  plants, 
tor  animals  must  not  only  do  work  besides  performing  their 
normal  life  processes,  but  the  body  of  the  warm-blooded 
animal  is  kept  at  a  fairly  constant  temperature  considerably 
above  that  of  the  surrounding  air,   throughout  the  year. 

Energy.  Fire  must  have  a  good  draught;  so  must  living 
things  have  plenty  of  oxygen.  Living  things  must  have  fuel 
as  must  the  fire.  Man  and  beast  become  weak  and  cannot 
work  without  food.  Like  animals,  the  plants  are  dependent 
on  the  union  of  oxygen  with  other  substances  in  their  tissues 
for  the  energy  with  which  they  perform  the  work  of  manufac- 
turing their  food,  and  for  doing  the  work  of  growth,  trans- 
piration, and  reproduction. 

Sun,  Source  of  All  Energy.  This  energy  that  is  used  by 
the  animal  in  living,  keeping  warm,  and  working,  is  stored 
in  the  food  which  comes  from  the  plant.  The  plant  takes 
the  light  and  heat  from  the  sun  and  stores  them  up;  there- 
fore, heat  and  work  come  ultimately  from  the  sun.  Not 
only  so,  but  every  other  form  of  energy  that  man  has  at  his 
disposal  comes  from  the  sun.  Steam  engines  obtain  their 
energy  from  the  coal  composed  of  plants  that  were  subjected 
to  great  pressure  without  free  access  of  air.  The  fuel  for  gas 
and  oil  engines  comes  from  the  same  source.  Electric 
dynamos,  if  not  run  by  steam  engines  or  gas  engines,  are 
run  by  water  power,  but  the  sun  raises  the  water  as  vapor 
to  the  clouds  from  which  it  falls  as  rain.  Running  down 
mountain  sides,  streams  communicate  motion  to  machinery 
that  generates  the  electric  power.  Thus,  all  electric  power 
comes  from  the  sun  and  even  the  work  done  by  the  wind, 
through  the  windmill  is  from  the  same  source,  since  winds 


32  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

• 

are  caused  by  the  unequal  heating  of  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Thus  we  can  come  back  to  the  beginning  and  say  again 
that  all  things  and  all  creatures  are  mutually  dependent. 
Man  is  dependent  upon  his  fellows  in  the  social  order. 
Animals  are  dependent  on  plants,  and  plants  on  sunlight 
and  mineral  matter.  Truly  all  hfe  depends  on  the  sun; 
and,  still  more  briefly,  we  may  say — No  light,  no  life.  There 
was  some  excuse  for  primitive  peoples'  worship  of  the  sun. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Wherein  is  man  dependent  on  other  men?     On  nature? 

2.  What  is  chlorophyll? 

3.  Describe  its  work,  showing  its  importance  and  its  relationship  to 

sunshine. 

4.  Describe  transpiration. 

5.  How  are  food  manufacture  and  respiration  related? 

6.  Why  must  all  living  things  have  food? 

7.  Show  wherein  the  sun  is  the  source  of  all  life. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Cover  a  healthy  house  plant  with  black  paper  in  such  a  way  that 

it  is  not  badly  crowded.  Fasten  the  paper  at  base  of  stem. 
Put  in  a  dark  room  at  ordinary  temperature.  Give  it  a  half 
cupful  of  water  each  day.  Examine  it  in  a  week;  two  weeks; 
three  weeks. 

2.  Put  a  clean  glass  jar  over  a  healthy  geranium.     Be  careful  not 

to  break  many  leaves.  Note  results  at  end  of  one  or  two 
hours.     Explain. 

3.  Secure  a  dozen  medium-sized  potatoes.     Sprout  by  keeping  in  a 

warm  place  for  two  or  three  weeks.  Some  should  be  sprouted 
in  the  dark  and  some  in  the  hght.     Explain  results. 

4.  Visit  a  library  to  find  an  illustrated  article  on  famine  in  some 

magazine.     Why  do  starving  persons  become  weak  and  thin? 

REFERENCES 
Any  textbook  in  botany. 
Physics  of  Agriculture,  King. 
The  Soil,  King. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 
Mechanism  of  Nature,  Ehlers. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  PLANT  AND  WATER 

Wherever  plants  thrive,  all  the  conditions  necessary  to 
vegetable  life  are  sure  to  be  found.  Wherever  plants  are 
scarce,  entirely  absent,  or  scrawny,  something  is  wrong  with 
the  environment.  Proper  growth  is  dependent  on  six 
favorable  conditions:  namely,  (1)  soil  as  a  home  for  the 
plant,  (2)  plant  food,  (3)  light,  (4)  warmth,  (5)  air,  and  (6) 
water.  Besides  these,  freedom  from  weeds,  insects,  and 
plant  diseases  is  essential.  Fertile  soil  in  good  tilth  sup- 
plies a  home  and  plant  food,  and  permits  the  access  of  air 
to  roots;  climate  largely  determines  how  much  heat,  light, 
and  water  plants  in  any  place  may  have.  Of  these  three, 
the  supply  of  water  alone  can  be  controlled  to  any  great 
extent  by  man. 

How  the  Plant  Uses  Water.  More  than  half  the  weight 
of  all  growing  plants  is  made  up  of  water;  some  plants  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  it.  For  example,  melons  contain 
only  2  per  cent  of  solid  substance.  Not  only  green  plants, 
but  dried  ones,  contain  considerable  moisture.  Hay,  straw, 
corn,  and  wheat  contain  from  5  to  20  per  cent  of  water. 
This  fact  can  be  detected  readily  by  heating  a  small  quan- 
tity of  any  of  these  substances  in  a  test  tube.  The  water 
vapor  driven  off  will  collect  on  the  cool  part  of  the  tube 
near  the  mouth. 

Plant  food  must  be  dissolved  in  water  before  it  can  be 

absorbed  by  the  plant.  "  The  dissolved  minerals  are  carried 

upward  by  water,  and,  after  they  have  been  united  with 

carbon  dioxide  and  water  in  the  leaves,  water  carries  the 

new  plant  foods,  known  as  elaborated  plant  food,  to  all  parts 

of  the  plant. 

3—  33 


34  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Plant  Processes  and  Water.  Soil  moisture  passes  into 
the  root  hairs  when  there  is  a  greater  concentration  of  dis- 
solved substance  in  them  than  in  the  soil  water.  This 
action  is  the  result  of  osmotic  pressure,  a  force  explained 
elsewhere  in  this  book  (p.  45).  When  the  concentration  of 
any  one  mineral  is  less  within  the  root  hair  than  in  the  soil 
water,  that  mineral  diffuses  inward.  Those  minerals  used 
for  plant  food  are  carried  from  the  root  into  the  stem  and 
leaves,  thereby  enabling  more  of  them  to  enter,  if  there  are 
some  at  hand  in  solution.  Water,  however,  goes  in  only 
when  the  total  concentration  within  is  greater  than  the  total 
concentration  of  the  soil  moisture;  but,  as  indicated,  the 
minerals  behave  independently.  If  the  bulb  of  a  thistle 
tube  is  filled  with  a  strong  salt  or  sugar  solution,  a  piece  of 
parchment  paper  or  animal  bladder  tied  tightly  across  the 
large  end,  and  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  in  fresh  water 
for  a  few  hours,  water  will  rise  in  the  small  tube.  A  force 
similar  to  that  which  pulls  water  through  the  membrane 
causes  water  to  enter  the  root  hair. 

Once  inside  the  plant,  water  moves  from  cell  to  cell  until 
a  series  of  small  tubes  is  reached,  by  means  of  which  it  moves 
toward  the  leaves,  carrying  with  it  the  useful  materials 
absorbed  by  the  roots.  It  is  not  definitely  known  what 
forces  cause  water  to  rise  to  the  top  of  tall  trees.  When 
the  leaves  are  reached,  however  this  is  accomplished,  a  part 
of  the  water  is  used  in  a  reaction  with  carbon  dioxide  which 
enters  the  leaf  through  small  openings  called  stomata.  Most 
of  it,  though,  is  evaporated  through  these  openings. 

Transpiration,  as  this  giving  off  of  water  is  called,  can 
be  shown  by  inverting  a  clean  bottle  over  a  healthy  house 
plant.  In  about  an  hour  water  droplets  will  begin  to  con- 
dense on  the  bottle.  Transpiration  also  helps  to  keep  the 
plant  cool.  If  water  is  not  supplied  as  rapidly  as  needed, 
wilting  follows  on  account  of  a  collapse  of  cells  in  much  the 
same  way  that  a  basket  ball  collapses  as  the  air  escapes. 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER  35 

When  the  bark  is  stripped  from  a  plant,  a  sap-like 
liquid  is  found.  This  is  a  solution  of  elaborated  plant  food 
being  carried  downward  from  the  leaves.  The  woody  part 
just  inside  the  bark  is  the  area  in  which  the  water  solution 
is  carried  upward. 

Manufacture  of  Foods.  Green  bodies,  visible  under  the 
microscope,  show  throughout  the  leaves  and  other  green 
parts  of  the  plant.  This  green  substance,  known  as  chloro- 
phyll, in  some  way  with  the  help  of  sunlight,  uses  carbon 
dioxide  and  water  to  produce  sugar  and  then  starch.  Various 
other  substances  are  formed  by  the  union  of  these  with 
mineral  matter  from  the  soil.  These  are  the  elaborated 
plant  foods,  which  can  be  used  by  the  plant  in  increasing 
its  size,  and  in  growing  fruit,  flower,  stem,  and  root. 

Movement  of  Foods.  Water  not  only  carries  these  new 
products  to  various  parts  of  the  plant,  but  moves  them 
again  if  necessary.  Carrots  and  beets,  for  example,  grow 
fleshy  roots  one  year,  and  seed  the  next,  if  they  receive 
proper  care.  The  roots  become  hollow  as  the  seed  ripens, 
on  account  of  the  transfer  of  food  material  from  root  to 
seed.  Since  such  movement  can  take  place  only  when  the 
substances  are  in  solution,  it  is  clear  that  water  moves  the 
stored  food.  In  much  the  same  way,  considerable  food  is 
stored  in  branches  and  twigs  of  fruit  trees.  As  the  fruit 
develops,  some  of  this  is  carried  away  to  assist  growth. 

Soil  Water.  Water,  held  as  a  film  around  soil  particles, 
is  used  more  readily,  if  it  is  abundant.  To  maintain  a  supply 
of  water,  farmers  irrigate  their  fields  or  till  the  soil  to  prevent 
evaporation.  Cultivation  causes  a  thin  blanket  of  loose 
soil  to  be  formed.  This  mulch  conserves  the  water  that  is 
in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  crops,  if  weeds  are  not  using  it. 
Since  water  is  desired  for  the  crop,  all  other  causes  of  loss 
are  reduced  as  much  as  possible.  Sometimes  it  is  possible 
to  save  water  not  only  from  one  rain  to  the  next  but  from 
one  year  to  another.     Such  water  storage  makes  dry-farming 


36 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  9. — Effect  of  too  much  water.      Note  the  cracks  due 
to  puddling  of  the  soil. 


possible  in  regions  of  low  rainfall,  unless  high  winds,  short 
seasons  or  other  factors  prevent  crop  growth. 

Available  Water.  All  this  water,  however,  can  not  be 
used  by  the  plant.  Only  about  half  the  water  that  a  soil  is 
able  to  hold  without  loss  through  drainage  can  be  absorbed 
by  root  hairs.     When  less  than  this  quantity  is  in  the  soil, 

it  clings  tight- 
ly to  the  par- 
ticles. This 
condition 
causes  slow 
absorption, 
and  conse- 
quently easy 
wilting.  In 
well -aerated 
soils,  most 
crops  extend 
some  of  their  roots  several  feet  into  the  soil.  This  drawing 
of  water  from  greater  depths  increases  the  supply  available 
to  the  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  soils  get  overwet  when  rainfall  is 
heavy  or  when  much  irrigation  water  is  supplied,  unless  it 
can  pass  downward  easily.  Accumulation  of  water,  known 
as  water-logging,  prevents  sufficient  air  from  reaching  the 
roots.  Drainage  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of  this  excess  water. 
Other  injuries  sometimes  result  from  alkali  salts  that 
water  may  carry  to  the  surface.  These  salts  may  come 
from  deep  soil  or  from  higher  areas  through  which  excess 
irrigation  water  seeps  to  low  spots.  The  salt-carrying  water 
must  be  drained  off  in  this  case  also. 

Water  Relation.  The  amount  of  water  present  in  the 
soil  is  highly  important  in  determining  which  plants  can  or 
can  not  grow  on  a  particular  spot.  As  a  result,  it  is  the  chief 
factor  in  determining  a  plant  community  or  association. 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER 


37 


The  term  plant  community  is  used  to  designate  a  large 
group  of  plants  of  one  kind  or  of  several  kinds  growing  in  a 
particular  locality  in  response  to  the  same  influences,  such 
as  in  swamps,  on  hillsides,  or  on  alkali  plains.  Geographical 
distributions  called  zones  do  not  result  from  water  relations 
so  largely  as  from  temperature  relations. 


Figure  10. — Water  relations  are  shown  by  brush  in  wet  places  and  scrubby  growth 
on  higher  and  drier  ridges. 


Plant  Commimities.  Plant  associations  in  relation  to 
water  are  usually  classified  as  xerophytes,  mesophytes,  and 
hydrophytes.  Xerophytes  are  plants,  such  as  the  prickly 
pear  and  salt-grass,  commonly  found  in  regions  that  are 
physically  or  physiologically  dry.  Mesophytes  are  plants 
which  thrive  best  neither  in  very  moist  nor  in  very  dry 
conditions.  Most  of  our  cultivated  crops  belong  to  this 
group.  Hydrophytes  are  plants  which  naturally  live  in 
water  or  where  it  can  be  had  in  abundance.  Algae,  water- 
cress, sedges,  and  rushes  are  typical  hydrophytes. 

Conditions  Favoring  Xerophytic  Formations.  Xerophytic 
conditions  are  due  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  to 
climate.  A  dry  soil  is  regarded  as  either  physically  dry  or 
physiologically  dry.  A  physically  dry  soil  is  one  which 
contains  but  little  water.     A  soil  is  physiologically  dry, 


38  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

when,  although  the  water  content  is  considerable,  the  plant 
can  not  make  use  of  it.  This  condition  occurs  in  soils  that 
are  very  acid  or  cold,  and  in  soils  which  contain  considerable 
alkali.  Plants  growing  in  regions  of  much  salt,  though  called 
xerophytes,  are  also  conveniently  termed  halophytes  to 
distinguish  them  from  other  xerophytes.  Soils  containing 
approximately  one  half  of  one  per  cent  of  salt  in  solution — 
along  sea  coasts  and  salt  marshes,  for  example — favor  this 
type  of  xerophytic  formation.  A  low  temperature  prevents 
the  roots  of  plants  from  taking  up  much  water,  although  it 
may  be  in  the  soil  in  sufficient  quantity  to  favor  growth. 
Coldness,  however,  makes  the  vegetation  xerophytic.  This 
condition  is  manifest  in  the  tundras  of  the  far  north,  where 
only  a  few  mosses  are  able  to  grow.  Other  climatic  condi- 
tions favoring  xerophytic  growth  are  dry  air,  high  tem- 
perature, and  elevation,  which  hasten  the  loss  of  water  by 
transpiration  from  the  plants. 

Conditions  Favoring  Mesophjrtic  Formations.  Meso- 
phytes  grow  on  soils  that  are  not  especially  acid,  saline,  or 
cold,  and  hence  not  physiologically  dry.  Likewise  they  do 
not  thrive  on  soils  that  contain  so  little  water  as  to  be  phys- 
ically dry.  These  types  of  soils  are  usually  well-aerated, 
containing  a  fair  amount  of  plant  food  and  supporting  good 
plant  growth.  They  are  illustrated  by  our  cultivated  crops, 
which  require  a  climate  not  favoring  excessive  transpi- 
ration and  in  which  the  temperature  is  not  unusually  high. 

The  conditions  favoring  hydrophjrtic  formations  are 
the  opposite  of  those  listed  under  xerophytic  conditions. 
The  soils  are  abundantly  supplied  with  water — at  times 
the  plants  are  even  submerged.  The  soils  are  neither  too 
cold  nor  too  salty,  allowing  the  roots  to  absorb  without  much 
difficulty  all  the  water  and  food  material  necessary. 

Effects  on  the  Form  of  the  Plant.  Plants  known  as 
xerophytes  adapt  themselves  to  xerophytic  conditions  in 
various  ways.    Some  have  the  leaf  surfaces  reduced;  some 


THE  PLANT  AND  WATER  39 

have  no  leaves  at  all;  still  others  have  their  leaves  replaced 
by  spines  or  thorns.  The  plant,  in  some  instances,  tends 
to  reduce  its  surface  by  the  leaves'  becoming  more  nearly 
round.  It  may  change  in  other  ways:  (1)  by  producing  a 
waxy  covering  or  an  abundant  growth  of  hairs,  (2)  by  form- 
ing a  thicker  outer  layer  over  the  epidermis,  and  (3)  the 


Figure    11 — Vegetation  changes  markedly  from  rushes  and  sedges  in  the  marsh  to 
trees  on  higher  land.     (Gage.) 


stomatal  openings  through  the  epidermis  may  be  lessened  in 
number  or  occupy  more  sunken  positions.  The  changes 
brought  about  in  hydrophytes  are  the  opposite  of  those  in 
xerophytes.  The  leaves  are  larger  and  thinner  with  more 
stomata.  The  epidermal  covering  is  thin,  and  often  without 
hair  or  wax. 

Water  and  Crops.  Throughout  arid  regions,  where  soils 
are  deep  and  fertile  and  where  the  sun  shines  most  of  the  days, 
water  is  the  most  important  factor  in  determining  how  suc- 
cessfully crops  can  be  grown.  Until  recently  no  one  regarded 
western  farms  as  worth  anything,  if  there  was  not  water  for 
ample  irrigation.  Under  dry-farming  the  chief  problem  is 
how  much  water  can  be  saved  in  the  soil.  Water  is  the  one 
thing  that  limits  the  production  of  crops  to  a  greater  extent 
than  any  other  single  factor.  Soils  and  sunshine  are  plenti- 
ful; air  and  warmth  abound;  only  water  is  scarce. 


40  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Show  the  relative  importance  of  water  to  the  plant. 

2.  How  much  water  do  green  plants  contain?     Dry  plants? 

3.  Why  is  water  so  necessary  for  plant  growth?     List  its  uses  in 

agriculture. 

4.  What  is  a  mulch?    How  does  it  conserve  moisture? 

5.  Why  does  water  enter  the  plant?     How?    What  causes  minerals 

to  pass  in? 

6.  Explain  transpiration. 

7.  What  work  is  done  in  the  roots  of  plants?    In  the  leaves?    In  the 

stem?     How  does  water  help  in  each? 

8.  In  what  ways  is  too  much  soil  water  injurious  to  crops? 

9.  What  should  be  done  with  water-logged  soils?     How? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  a  plant  community  or  association? 

11.  Name  and  describe  three  kinds  of  plants  in  regard  to  the  supply 

of  water.     What  are  halophytes? 

12.  How  do  droughty  conditions  affect  plants? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  a  test  tube  and  burner.  Place  some  dry  substances  in  the 
bottom  of  the  test  tube.  Heat  gently,  keeping  mouth  of  tube 
cool.     Note  vapor  and  drops  of  water.     Explain. 

2  Remove  the  outer  layer  from  a  growing  plant.  Note  the  solution 
of  plant  food. 

3.  Place  in  four  deep  tight  pans,  cans,  or  buckets  some  wet  but  not 

saturated  soil.  Pack  the  surface  gently  by  pressure  with  some 
flat  body.  To  two  of  these  add  two  or  three  inches  of  fine, 
dry  sand  or  other  loose  soil.  Keep  the  surfaces  dry.  Stand 
all  four  in  a  warm  but  not  a  hot  place.  In  a  week  examine 
carefully.   What  has  happened?    Explain.    Discuss  appUcation. 

4.  Go  for  a  short  trip  to  study  plant  communities.     Examine  all 

found.     Try  to  explain  each.     Look  for  them  in  distance. 

5.  Collect  leaves  and  other  plant  parts  showing  methods  of  protection 

against  drying  out. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  botany. 
Any  textbook  of  physiography. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 
Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  Widtsoe. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  PLANT  AND  THE  SOIL 


The  relationship  existing  between  the  plant  and  the  soil 
is  very  important.     In  any  system  of  agriculture,  the  plant 


Figure  12. — Small  vs.  large  kernels  as  to  vitality.     4  on  right,  large 
oats;  4  on  left,  small  oats. 

is  dependent  upon  the  soil  in  a  large  measure  for  its  food 
supply,  while  the  soil  in  turn  is  dependent  upon  the  plant 
for  the  production  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil,  the 
presence  and  decay  of  which  are  so  essential  to  the  main- 
tenance of  its  productivity. 

Seed.  Without  good  seed  it  is  impossible  to  raise  plants 
economically.  The  value  of  the  seed  depends,  among  other 
things,  upon  the  variety  grown.  Thus,  for  example,  it  has 
been  found  by  the  Utah  Experiment  Station,  as  a  result  of 
seven  years'*  experimental  work,  that  the  lowest  yielding 
variety  of  wheat,  Odessa,  gave  a  yield  of  20.9  bushels,  and 
the  highest  yielding  variety,  Turke}^  Red,  gave  32.7  bushels, 
making  a  difference  of  11.8  bushels  in  favor  of  the  better 
variety  of  wheat.  In  addition,  the  Turkey  Red  is  more 
valuable  for  the  production  of  flour,  being  richer  in  those 

41 


42  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

qualities  necessary  for  bread  production.  Again,  the  value 
of  the  seed  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon  its  vitaHty  or 
vigor.  The  fresher  seeds,  since  they  have  greater  vitality 
than  the  older  ones,  are  more  desirable.  The  size  of  the 
seed  is  also  an  important  factor.  It  has  been  definitely 
determined  that  a  better  yield  may  be  obtained  by  planting 
the  larger  seed. 

Home  of  the  Plant.  But  good  seed  alone  can  not  pro- 
duce crops.  There  are  other  essential  factors,  one  of  which 
is  the  soil,  which  serves  as  the  home  of  the  plant.  The 
roots  of  the  plant  secure  a  foothold  in  the  soil,  thus  forming 
a  firm  foundation  upon  which  the  plant  can  build  its  parts 
above  the  ground.  The  home  of  the  plant  may  vary  in 
texture  to  great  depths;  or  it  may  contain  a  hardpan  or  a 
gravelly  subsoil  at  a  depth  of  one  to  two  feet.  Although  it  is 
practically  an  impossibility  to  convert  a  heavy  clay  into  a 
sandy  soil,  much  may  be  done  to  improve  the  condition  of 
either  extreme  type  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  the 
thorough  tillage  of  the  soil,  and  the  introduction  of  under- 
drainage.  The  structure  of  a  heavy  clay  soil  can,  in  most 
cases,  be  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of  finely  ground 
limestone  in  small  amounts,  or  by  the  addition  of  sand, 
although  the  cost  of  adding  sand  in  sufficient  amounts  to 
modify  the  physical  condition  of  the  clay  is  probably  too 
great  ordinarily  to  warrant  its  application.  On  a  limited 
scale,  however,  it  may  be  profitable.  A  few  loads  of  clay, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  materially  modify  a  sandy  soil. 

We  are  realizing  more  and  more  that  it  is  desirable  in  the 
case  of  the  home  of  the  animal  (including  the  human  being) 
to  have  a  well-ventilated  house  which  is  kept  in  a  sanitary 
condition.  We  know  that  man  can  not  rise  to  the  highest 
efficiency  when  he  lives  in  a  stuffy,  ill -ventilated  room.  As 
it  is  with  the  home  of  man,  so  it  must  be  with  the  home  of  the 
plant.  The  soil  should  be  kept  in  a  well -ventilated,  sanitary 
condition.    Thus,  if  the  home  of  the  plant  becomes  decidedly 


THE  PLAINT  AND  THE  SOIL  43 

sour,  or  acidic,  the  condition  may  be  remedied  by  the  addi- 
tion of  Hmestone.  Fortunately,  in  the  intermountain 
western  section  of  the  country,  very  few,  if  any,  soils  are 
acidic  in  nature,  being  abundantly  supplied  with  limestone. 
Again,  soils  that  are  supplied  with  an  excess  of  water-soluble 
salts  are  rendered  nonproductive  on  account  of  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  so-called  alkali.  Soils  that  are  water-logged,  a 
condition  attributable,  largely,  in  irrigated  districts,  to  the 
excessive  use  of  irrigation  water,  are  also  unsanitary.  It  is 
essential,  therefore,  that  the  home  of  the  plant  be  kept  in  a 
sweet,  sanitary  condition. 

Source  of  Plant  Food.  Besides  serving  as  the  home  of 
the  plant,  the  soil  furnishes  some  of  its  food.  The  material 
out  of  which  the  plant  is  made  is  obtained  by  it  from  three 
sources:  (1)  from  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the  atmosphere, 
(2)  from  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  (3)  from  the  inorganic 
plant  foods,  or  rock  material,  of  the  soil.  While  the  greater 
part  of  the  plant  is  obtained  from  the  first  two  sources,  a 
small,  yet  essential  part  is  obtained  from  the  rock  material 
of  the  soil.  Thus,  if  the  wheat  kernel  is  burned,  about  98 
per  cent  will  pass  off  into  the  atmosphere,  which,  in  a  general 
way,  represents  the  material  obtained  by  the  plant  from  the 
moisture  and  from  the  atmosphere.  The  remaining  2  per 
cent,  the  so-called  ash  of  the  plant,  is  the  solid  material 
obtained  by  the  plant  from  the  soil.  In  this  material  there 
are  six  of  the  essential  plant  foods,  without  which  a  plant 
can  not  grow  normally  and  reproduce  its  kind. 

Physical  Condition  of  the  Soil.  The  soil  should  be  main- 
tained in  the  best  possible  physical  condition.  By  this 
statement  we  mean  that  it  should  crumble  readily  when 
cultivated,  and  it  should  have  that  desirable  quality  which 
we  speak  of  as  tilth.  This  is  desirable,  because  a  soil  in 
such  condition  retains  moisture  well  and  the  plant  food 
contained  in  it  is  rendered  more  easily  available  to  the  plant. 
A  soil  in  a  proper  state  of  tilth  readily  admits  the  penetration 


44 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


of  the  roots  of  plants  in  search  for  moisture  and  plant  food. 
The  physical  condition  may  be  changed  by  proper  tillage, 
by  the  introduction  of  organic  matter,  and  in  some  cases 
by  the  addition  of  the  so-called  commercial  fertilizers. 

Function  of  Roots.  The 
roots  of  a  plant  consist  in 
general  of  two  principal 
kinds, — the  main,  or  tap, 
root,  together  with  its 
different  large  side  roots 
which  serve  as  an  anchor- 
age for  the  plant,  and  the 
small  root  hairs,  which  are 
so  small  that  they  will 
probably  escape  observa- 
tion unless  a  careful  ex- 
amination is  made.  The 
purpose  of  root  hairs  is  to 
obtain  food  for  the  plant. 
It  is  essential,  therefore,  to 
know  the  conditions  under 
which  a  maximum  number 
of  these  root  hairs  may  be 
developed.  Because  a  soil 
well  supplied  with  lime- 
stone is  both  porous  and 
fertile,  more  root  hairs  develop  than  in  a  soil  lacking  it. 
How  a  Plant  Feeds.  If  close  examination  is  made  of 
these  root  hairs,  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  no  small 
openings  in  them.  How,  then,  does  the  plant  secure  food 
by  means  of  these  organs?  The  soil  solution  containing  the 
dissolved  plant  foods  diffuses  through  the  outer  covering  of 
these  roots  hair  into  the  plant  sap.  The  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  root  hairs  is  a  semiporous  membrane,  through 
which  water  and  certain  dissolved  salts  may  pass  readily. 


Figure  13. — Kernel  of  oata  enlarged  about 
two  diameters,  showing  root  hairs. 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  SOIL 


45 


Since  there  is  a  concentration  of  water-soluble  material  in 
the  soil  solution  surrounding  the  root  hairs,  there  is  a  ten- 
dency for  the  water  to  pass  from  the  soil  solution  into  the 
plant.     A  small  amount  of  plant 'food  may  be  mechanically 

transported  in  this 
way;  but,  in  addi- 
tion, there  is  a  ten- 
dency for  a  diffusion 
or  a  passage  of  the 
plant  foods  them- 
selves from  without 
to  within  the  plant. 
This  process  is  spo- 
ken of  as  osmosis. 

Lime  Favorable 
to  Legumes.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  main 
roots  of  plants  and 
the  root  hairs  already 
noted,  there  are  on 
the  roots  of  certain 
crops,  called  legumes, 
such  as  alfalfa,  clov- 
er, peas,  and  beans, 
small  enlargements 
known  as  nodules. 
These  nodules  are  of  great  importance  in  agriculture;  for 
within  them  are  growing,  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  small 
organisms  that  have  the  power  of  utilizing  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  atmosphere  and  converting  it  into  the  combined  form 
for  the  use  of  the  higher  plants.  These  small  plants  require 
a  nonacidic  soil  and  consequently  develop  readily  in  a  lime- 
stone soil.  Therefore,  sour  soils  must  be  first  treated  with 
limestone  before  legumes  can  be  grown  successfully. 


Figure  14. — Nitrogen  nodules  on  clover. 


46 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Aeration.  It  is  important  that  the  home  of  the  plant 
be  kept  in  a  well-aerated  condition  in  order  that  the  plant 
food  may  be  rendered  available  by  different  chemical  and 
bacteriological  processes.  Bacteria,  as  already  noted,  play 
a  highly  important  part  in  rendering  the  plant  food  available. 


Figure  15. — Nitrogen  tubercles  on  soy  beans. 


In  order  that  they  may  carry  on  their  proper  work,  an 
abundant  supply  of  air  is  necessary.  Again,  the  purely 
chemical  processes  of  rendering  plant  food  available  demand 
a  supply  of  air;  and,  in  addition,  the  germination  of  the  seed, 
essentially  a  process  of  combustion,  or  burning,  requires  a 
supply  of  air. 

Temperature.  It  is  important  that  the  home  of  the 
plant  be  kept  at  as  uniform  a  temperature  as  possible. 
Sudden  changes  are  harmful.  The  temperature  of  the 
soil  is  very  difficult  to  control;  but  it  has  been  determined 
that  a  soil  well-supplied  with  organic  matter  may  be  six  or 
eight  degrees  warmer  than  a  soil  not  so  composed.  This 
fact  again  points  out  the  necessity  and  importance  of  adding 
organic  matter,  such  as  decayed  straw,  leaves,  and  barn- 


THE  PLANT  AND  THE  SOIL 


47 


yard  manure,  to  the  soil.  In  addition,  a  soil  that  is  water- 
logged is  generally  cold  and  does  not  warm  up  readily  in  the 
spring,  indicating  the  nesd  of  thorough  drainage. 

Rotation  of  Crops.     It  is  undesirable  to  grow  any  one 
crop  continuously   upon  the  same  piece  of  ground.     The 

crops  should  be 
changed  regularly  and 
in  a  systematic  man- 
ner. Such  a  change  of 
crops  is  called  rotation. 
As  far  as  practicable 
the  farmer  should 
know  definitely  the 
crop  that  he  is  going 
to  grow  upon  any  given 
soil  several  years  in 
advance  of  the  grow- 
ing of  that  crop.  There 
are  some  well-defined 
reasons  for  practic- 
ing such  a  method  of 
farming.  By  a  system 
of  crop  rotation,  which 
includes  a  legume,  we 
are  enabled  to  utilize 
the  atmospheric  nitro- 
gen involved  in  crop 
production.  The  rotation  also  gives  us  a  better  method  of 
controlling  insect  pests  and  plant  diseases.  Further,  it  ren- 
ders possible  the  elimination  of  weeds,  and,  from  an  eco- 
nomic point  of  view,  gives  the  farmer  a  chance  to  utilize  his 
time  to  better  advantage  by  permitting  him  to  arrange  his 
crops  in  such  a  way  that  only  one  needs  attention  at 
one  time.  Horse  labor  and  irrigation  may  also  be  used  more 
economically. 


Figure    16. — Nitrogen    tubercles  on    alfalfa    en- 
larged. 


48  WESTERN  ACPRICULTURE 


QUESTIONS 

1.  How  important  for  high  yield  is  the  variety  of  a  crop? 

2.  Show  how  the  soil  is  the  home  of  the  plant.     How  may  this  home 

be  improved? 

3.  What   is   plant  food?     From   where   does   the   plant   obtain   its 

mineral  supply? 

4.  When  is  a  soil  in  good  physical  condition?     How  may  this  con- 

dition be  obtained? 

5.  How  do  plants  take  in  mineral  food? 

6.  Why  are  soils  rich  in  lime  advantageous? 

7.  In  what  ways  does  aeration  assist  in  the  activities  of  the  soil? 

8.  How  may  soils  be  made  warmer? 

9.  What  are  crop  rotations? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  To  samples  of  clay  soils  add  sand,  leaf  mold,  cut  straw,  and  fine 

manure.  Then  mix  thoroughly  with  a  moderate  quantity  of 
water  and  let  stand.  Dampen  and  mix  a  sample  of  straight  clay. 
After  a  few  days,  when  dry,  compare  results. 

2.  Add  to  boiling  water  all  the  salt  it  will  dissolve.     Cool  and  fill  the 

bulb  of  a  thistle  tube  with  the  solution.  Tie  a  piece  of  animal 
bladder  or  parchment  paper  over  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  shut 
out  all  air.  Stand  in  a  vessel  of  fresh  water.  If  successful, 
this  experiinent  illustrates  osmosis  in  from  three  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  To  be  successful,  all  air  must  be  kept  out  of  the 
thistle  tube. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  Botany. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  Hopkins. 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 

Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 

Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slyke. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 


CHAPTER  VI 


MICROSCOPIC  PLANTS 


Vast  as  is  the  number  of  plants  which  we  see  about  us 
daily,  still  more  numerous  are  those  which  are  about  us 
everyivhere  but  which  we  do  not  see  because  they  are  so 
small.     These  microscopic  organisms  are  bacteria,  yeasts, 

and  molds.     Bacteria,  which 
comprise  the  majority  of 
these,  are  minute,  unicellular 
organisms  which  multiply  by 
a  process  caWed  fission.    They 
are  composed  of  rod-shaped, 
spherical,  and  spiral  bodies. 
Yeasts  are  unicellular  or- 
ganisms usually  considerably 
larger  than  bacteria  and  have 
a  definite  organized  nucleus. 
They  usually  multiply  by  a 
process  called  budding  and 
are  oval  bodies.     Molds  are  multicellular  fungi  of  consider- 
able size  and  in  types  of  body  are  much  more  complex  than 
either  bacteria  or  yeasts. 

They  are  all  classed  together  as  simple  undifferentiated 
plants  which  never  develop  roots,  stems,  or  leaves. 

The  bacteria  are  of  the  most  importance  and  are  found 
m  large  numbers  in  the  air  we  breathe,  in  the  water  and 
milk  we  drink,  in  the  soil  and  on  everything  with  which  the 
soil  comes  in  contact,  and  on  every  food  exposed  to  the  air. 
In  fact  there  are  very  few  places  where  they  do  not  exist. 
Bacteria  are  not  found  normally  in  the  tissues  of  the  plants, 
nor  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of  healthy  animals.     They  are 

*~-  49 


Figure  17 — A  colony  of  mold. 


50 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


often  present,  though  in  small  numbers,  deep  in  the  earth 
and  likewise  in  the  sea. 

Size.  Bacteria  are  so  small  that  a  single  grain  of  dust, 
too  minute  to  be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye,  may  carry  large 
numbers  of  them.  Yet,  despite  this  small  size,  there  is 
considerable  variation  in  their  form  and  actions, — such  a 

variation  that, 
after  careful 
study  of  them, 
scientists  have 
distinguished 
many  hundreds 
of  species  and 
have  grouped 
them  in  four 
general  families 
based  upon 
shape,  as  rod, 
sphere,  spiral, 
and  those 
whose  cells  are 
cylindrical, 
united  in  threads  or  filaments,  and  surrounded  by  a  sheath. 
The  Organism.  If  we  were  to  examine  the  individual 
cell — each  organism  is  a  single  cell — we  should  find  that  it 
contains  a  cell-wall,  a  cell  content,  or  protoplasm,  and  at 
least  a  functional  nucleus,  although  this  is  not  as  definite 
as  it  is  in  the  higher  plants.  In  addition,  the  organism 
may  contain  small  hair-like  processes  (flagella)  projecting 
from  the  body,  by  means  of  which  the  cell  is  able  to  move 
through  the  water  or  other  liquid  in  which  it  happens  to  be. 
Furthermore,  spores  are  formed  by  many  bacteria,  which 
are  simply  concentrations  of  the  vital  part  of  the  organism  in 
a  form  especially  resistant  to  heat,  light,  and  other  unfavor- 
able conditions.  The  bacterial  cell  multiplies  rapidly,  one  cell 


Figure  18. — Bacteria.     I.  Type  of  cocci;  II.  Bacilli;  III  Spir- 
illum; IV,  True  branching  of  one  class  of  bacteria. 


MICROSCOPIC  PLANTS  51 

becoming  two  in  so  short  a  time  as  twenty  minutes,  although 
the  average  time  is  sHghtly  more.  With  this  power  of  rapid 
development  in  mind  it  is  easy  to  understand  such  common 
processes  as  putrefaction,  decay,  and  souring,  which  often 
take  place  with  remarkable  rapidity  where  the  life  condi- 
tions— moisture,  temperature,  food,  and  chemical  reaction — 
happen  to  be  exactly  right. 

Nitrification  and  Nitrogen-Fixation  by  Bacteria.  Bac- 
teria play  an  important  role  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
They  are  essential  in  plant  growth  on  account  of  their 
agency  in  circulating  nitrogen.  This  circulation  of  nitrogen 
is  effected  by  the  breaking  down  of  complex  compounds 
which  contain  nitrogen  and  by  the  formation  from  these  of 
simple  nitrates  soluble  in  water  and  available  as  plant  food. 
Bacteria  have,  in  addition,  the  power  of  drawing  the  valu- 
able element  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  yielding  it  up  to 
plants,  especially  characteristic  of  legumes,  such  as  alfalfa, 
peas,  and  vetch.  This  process  is  called  nitrogen-fixation 
and  is  an  extremely  valuable  process  in  agricultural  practice; 
for,  when  these  plants  or  the  plant  residues  are  plowed  under, 
it  serves  to  enrich  the  soil.  Still  others  have  the  power  of 
growing  free  in  the  soil  and  changing  atmospheric  nitrogen 
into  organic  compounds.  Furthermore,  many  bacteria  found 
in  the  soil  decompose  plant  residues  of  the  soil  and  liberate 
from  them  essential  plant  foods. 

Industrial  Uses.  Bacteria,  in  the  process  of  putrefaction, 
act  on  starch  and  sugar,  liberating  carbon  dioxide.  Indus- 
trial application  is  made  of  bacteria  in  such  processes  as 
tanning  and  the  retting  of  flax.  Bacteria  produce,  in  addi- 
tion, if  properly  manipulated,  the  desired  flavors  in  butter 
and  cheese.  These  actions  are  all  regulated  accurately  by 
inoculating  the  cream  with  the  desirable  organism. 

Bacteria  and  Disease.  In  contrast  with  these  great  bene- 
fits which  are  bestowed  on  man,  bacteria  are  the  cause  of 
various  diseases  in  plants,  in  animals,  and  in  man.     Specific 


52 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


infections,  such  as  tuberculosis,  diphtheria,  anthrax,  and 
glanders  are  caused  by  bacteria.  They  also  cause  inflamma- 
tion in  wounds  and  abscesses.  Furthermore,  by  decomposi- 
tion they  may  produce  in  certain  food  products  a  group  of 
substances  called  ptomaines,  which  cause  intoxication  or 
even  death  upon  being  taken  into  the  animal  or  human  body. 

Yet  these  very  organisms  which 
produte  disease  are  the  basis  of 
vaccines  and  of  antitoxins  and 
other  substances  used  in  prevent- 
ing and  curing  disease.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  many  disease 
germs  call  out  the  latent  powers 
of  the  body  to  combat  the  disease. 
The  utilization  of  this  great  agency 
in  fighting  and  conquering  the  dis- 
eases of  man  is  intensely  practical. 
Requirements.  One  of  the  im- 
portant considerations  in  the 
observation  and  control  of  these 
organisms  is  their  life  conditions. 
They  have  very  definite  requirements.  Their  food  must 
be  in  such  a  condition  that  it  can  be  assimilated;  they 
will  not  five,  except  in  rare  cases,  on  inorganic  matter. 
The  majority  will  not  live  unless  some  nitrogen  and  mineral 
salts  ^re  present;  some  require  carbohydrates.  The  waste 
products  of  bacteria,  which  result  from  multiplication,  col- 
lect around  them  and  check  the  growth  of  the  organisms. 
Water  is  necessary  in  some  form  for  the  continuous 
growth  of  bacteria.  The  amount  of  drying  which  an  organ- 
ism will  stand  varies  with  the  species,  and  varies  in  the  same 
individual  in  response  to  conditions  which  are  little  under- 
stood. As  a  rule  the  vegetative  forms  do  not  endure  long  in 
the  presence  of  drouth,  but  spores  may  resist  drying  for  years. 
Bacteria  demand,   in  avldition,  for  their  best  growth, 


Figure  19. — Yeast. 


MICROSCOPIC  PLANTS 


53 


a  certain  temperature,  which  varies  greatly  with  different 
species.  Some  will  develop  vigorously  at  14  degrees  Centi- 
grade; others  at  40  degrees  Centigrade;  most,  however, 
demand  a  medium  temperature.  Some  will  develop  in  the 
presence  of  air;  others  demand  the  absence  of  air.  We  thus 
have  two  great  groups  established :  the  so-called  aerobes  and 

the  anaerobes — the  former 
requiring  the  presence,  the 
latter  the  absence,  of  air. 

Light  is  also  an  important 
factor.  Direct  sunlight  is 
germicidal;  that  is,  it  will  kill 
the  organisms  if  applied  con- 
tinuously. Diffused  light  is 
injurious.  Electric  light  is 
supposed  to  have  the  same 
effect  as  sunlight.  Bacteria 
thrive  best  in  darkness.  The 
X-ray  is  known  to  destroy 
living  tissue  on  long  exposure 
and  bacteria  cannot  be  more 
resistant.  The  X-ray  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  microbial 
diseases  of  the  skin. 

On  account  of  the  necessity  of  definite  conditions  which 
vary  with  the  different  species,  there  have  grown'  up  what 
are  called  bacterial  flora,  that  is,  groups  of  organisms  local- 
ized in  nature.  Thus  we  have  certain  organisms  normally 
characteristic  of  milk,  others  of  water,  of  soil,  and  of  air. 

Bacteria  Harnessed.  Due  to  the  careful  study  of  these 
organisms  man  has  reached  the  point  where  he  may  exer- 
cise a  control  over  their  activity.  Many  of  those  which  are 
most  beneficial  he  has  learned  to  utilize  to  his  great  good, 
and  many  of  those  that  are  detrimental  he  has  learned  to 
avoid.  Many  of  the  most  deadly  forms,  as  previously  stated, 
he  has  been  enabled  to  overcome  by  the  use  of  the  very 


Figure  20. — Culture  of  bacteria.  The 
white  spots  are  colonies  started  by 
the  dropping  of  bacteria  on  a  dish 
when  exposed  to  air. 


54  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

products  which  the  organisms  cause  to  be  formed.  As  our 
knowledge  of  this  vast  invisible  kingdom  of  organisms  in- 
ci  eases,  our  ability  to  control  them  will  increase. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  bacteria? 

2.  How  large  are  they? 

3.  Describe  living  bacteria. 

4.  Of  what  value  are  they?     Are  all  kinds  useful?     Which  are  in- 

jurious? 

5.  What  conditions  favor  their  growth? 

6.  How  are  bacteria  harnessed? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  If  a  microscope  is  available,  soak  some  moldy  hay  for  two  or  three 

days  in  some  lukewarm  water.  Now  transfer  a  small  drop  to 
a  slide  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine  solution.  Cover  with  clean 
cover  glass  and  examine  under  high-power  microscope.  Note 
the  shape  and  movement  of  bacteria. 

2.  Make  up  a  three  per  cent  sugar  solution.     Into  this  put  a  piece 

of  baker's  yeast.  Set  in  a  warm  place  "for  a  few  hours  and 
then  examine  as  in  Exercise  1. 

3.  Secure  a  piece  of  moldy  bread.     Place  a  cover  glass  gently  on 

the  mold.  Remove  as  carefully  as  possible  and  place  on  a 
glass  slide  with  mold  next  to  slide,  being  careful  not  to  draw 
cover  glass  sidewise.  Note  the  structure  of  the  mold  and  the 
manner  in  which  spores  are  born. 

REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Bacteriology,  Conn. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life,  Lipman. 

Home  Sanitation,  Sanitary  Science  Club  of  Ass'n  of  Collegiate 

Alumnae. 
Principles  of  Microbiology,  Moore. 
Laboratory  Directions  in  Bacteriology,  Moore. 
Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home,  Conn. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 
Pathogenic  Micro-organisms,  Park. 
Fertility  of  the  Land,  Roberts. 
General  Bacteriology,  Jordan. 
Microbiology,  Marshall. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

Plants  and  animals  make  up  the  living,  or  organic, 
things  of  nature's  realm.  Air,  water,  rocks,  and  soil  are 
the  chief  constituents  of  the  inorganic  world.  Between  the 
inorganic  and  organic  kingdoms  there  is  a  wide,  and,  so  far 
as  present  knowledge  extends,  an  impassible  gulf.  Plants 
and  animals  possess  that  distinctive  thing  called  life.  Just 
what  life  is  or  where  it  originated  we  may  never  know.  Its 
activities  and  manifestations,  however,  are  never-ending 
sources  of  interest.  Things  endowed  with  life  are  capable 
of  growth  and  development.  They  possess  the  power  of 
combining  material  from  the  inorganic  world  and  building 
themselves  up;  they  also  possess  the  power  of  reproducing 
living  things,  which  grow  to  be  like  themselves;  and  in  the 
end  they  die  and  disintegrate.  Inorganic  things  possess 
none  of  these  qualities.  A  stone  may  grow  larger  or  smaller 
as  particles  are  added  or  taken  away,  but  there  is  nothing 
inherent  in  the  stone  itself  that  enables  it  to  do  either. 

What  Plants  and  Animals  Have  in  Common.  Plants 
and  animals  possess  many  things  in  common.  The  living 
substance  of  each  is  protoplasm,  practically  alike  in  the  two 
groups.  Chemically,  the  greater  part  of  both  plants  and 
animals  is  made  up  of  the  same  four  elements:  (1)  carbon, 
(2)  hydrogen,  (3)  oxygen,  and  (4)  nitrogen;  and  the  com- 
pounds of  these  forms  are  grouped  into  the  same  three  gen- 
eral classes:  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  proteins. 

Dependence  of  Animals  on  Plants.  Animals  are,  how- 
ever, entirely  dependent  upon  plants  for  their  food.  The 
plant,  out  of  the  carbon  dioxide,  water,  and  small  amounts 
of  nitrogen  and  other  elements  from  the  soil,  builds  up  and 

55 


56  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

stores  in  its  tissues  complex  chemical  compounds.  Even 
the  nitrogen  is  nearly  all  originally  obtained  from  the  air, 
though  by  the  help  of  lower  forms  of  life  it  is  first  stored 
in  the  soil.  The  plant  builds  up  over  nine  tenths  of  its 
entire  substance  from  air  and  water,  and,  in  turn,  builds  up 
the  animaPs  body.  Even  carnivorous  animals  obtain  their 
food  from  plants,  as  they  feed  on  herbivorous  animals. 

The  plant  appropriates  from  the  air  carbon  dioxide, 
a  gas  exhaled  by  animals  and  poisonous  to  them  and  gives 
off  in  its  turn  oxygen  which  the  animal  uses.  In  the  animal 
body  the  complex  chemical  compounds  from  the  plants  are 
either  burned  to  maintain  bodily  heat  or  built  up  into 
still  more  complex  compounds.  In  these  processes  carbon 
dioxide  is  given  off  and  returned  to  the  air  for  the  use  of 
plants,  thus  completing  the  cycle. 

Indestructibility  of  Matter.  Matter  is,  as  we  have 
learned,  indestructible.  It  may  change  its  form,  but  can 
be  neither  created  nor  destroyed.  We  may  bum  a  lump  of 
coal  until  there  is  nothing  left  but  a  trifle  of  ash,  but  the 
carbon  has  only  changed  its  form,  uniting  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  to  form  carbon  dioxide,  which  passes  off  as  gas. 
This  gas  in  the  air  may  later  be  taken  up  by  plants  and 
changed  to  a  still  more  complex  compound.  In  doing  this 
the  plant  will  take  up  from  the  soil  minute  particles  of 
minerals  such  as  were  contained  in  the  ash  of  the  coal. 
This  plant  along  with  others  may  fall  into  a  marsh  and  be 
covered  up  for  a  long  time,  be  subjected  to  pressure,  and 
finally  turn  to  coal  to  be  dug  up  and  burned  again. 

Limestone,  which  appears  in  strata  of  immense  thick- 
ness in  our  mountain  chains,  owes  its  origin  to  the  inter- 
relation of  minute  forms  of  plant  and  animal  life.  The 
little  shell-bearing  protozoa  flourished  in  the  warmer  seas 
of  past  geological  ages,  because  they  found  there  an  abun- 
dance of  still  smaller  forms  of  plant  hfe  upon  which  they 
could  subsist.    Countless  billions  of  these  little  animals  lived 


PLANT 8  AND  ANIMAL8  57 

near  the  surface  of  the  water  where  the  plant  hfe  was  the 
most  abundant.  They  extracted  the  Hme  from  the  water 
to  form  their  calcium  carbonate  shells,  and,  as  they  grew 
old  and  died,  these  tiny  shells  sank  to  the  bottom.  Cen- 
tury after  century  this  process  went  on,  constantly  adding 
to  the  thickness  of  the  limestone  on  the  ocean  floor,  until 
part  of  the  mighty  masses  we  see  to-day  were  formed. 
From  these  limestone  rocks  many  of  our  most  fertile  soils 
have  been  largely  derived.  These  soils  in  turn  produce 
plants,  which  are  used  in  turn  to  feed  other  animals;  and 
so  the  continual  round  of  life  goes  on. 

Interdependence  of  Plants  and  Animals.  No  animal  can 
obtain  its  food  directly  from  the  elements  or  even  from  the 
simpler  compounds.  Without  plants  to  take  the  elements 
from  the  water  and  soil  and  build  them  into  compounds, 
no  animal  could  live.  Without  animals,  fire,  or  lower  organ- 
isms to  break  up  these  compounds  and  release  the  carbon 
dioxide,  the  plants  would  die.  We  are  familiar  with  this 
stored-up  carbon  of  plants  as  the  humus  of  our  soils,  as  peat, 
and  as  beds  of  coal. 

Animals  and  plants  are  interdependent  upon  each  other 
in  many  ways.  Higher  animals  and  insects  feed  on  growing 
plants,  often  destroying  them.  Other  groups  of  higher  ani- 
m.als  and  other  insects  feed  on  these  herbivorous  ones  and 
hold  them  in  check,  thus  restoring  such  a  balance  to  nature 
that  all  may  survive. 

Pollination  of  Flowers.  Many  plants  depend  upon  birds 
or  insects  to  fertilize  their  flowers  and  thus  to  perpetuate 
their  kind.  Clover  does  not  set  seed  until  visited  by  bumble 
bees.  In  some  regions  there  are  not  enough  bumble  bees  to 
make  it  profitable  to  raise  clover  seed.  In  many  places  the 
first  crop  is  cut  for  hay  and  the  second  left  for  seed,  because 
bumble  bees  are  more  numerous  in  the  fall  of  the  year. 
Alfalfa  depends  to  some  extent  upon  honey  bees  and  flies  for 
its  pollination.  Many  varieties  of  fruit  bear  better  colored 
and  larger  crops  if  cross-fertiUzed. 


58  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Seed  Dissemination.  The  seeds  of  many  plants  are 
distributed  by  animals.  The  burdock  and  the  cocklebur 
are  distributed  in  this  way  in  the  winter  time.  Other  seeds, 
called  beggar-ticks,  stick-tights,  and  like  names,  are  dis- 
tributed in  this  way  during  the  summer.  Birds  and  animals 
carry  seeds  in  the  mud  that  clings  to  their  feet.  Aquatic 
birds,  especially,  carry  many  seeds  in  this  way  from  one 
marsh  to  another. 

Civilization  Affected  by  the  Crops.  As  long  as  primitive 
man  was  content  to  subsist  on  what  wild  animals  could  fur- 
nish him,  he  needed  no  home  and  roved  from  place  to  place 
as  circumstances  warranted.  When,  however,  he  first  began 
to  cultivate  desirable  plants  to  increase  his  food  supply,  it  at 
once  became  necessary  to  settle  down  in  one  spot  and  re- 
main there  for  some  time.  It  was  also  necessary  for  him 
to  select  that  spot  with  reference  to  the  favorable  growth 
of  the  particular  plants  that  he  cultivated.  Thus  the  great 
civilized  nations  of  the  world  have  been  more  or  less  in- 
fluenced in  their  location  by  the  habits  of  certain  plants. 
The  wheat  belt  of  the  world  is  the  civilization  belt  as  well, 
just  as  much  as  the  corn  belt  is  the  hog  belt  of  this  country, 
and  for  similar  reasons.  Another  type  of  civilization  has 
followed  the  rice  plant,  and  still  another  the  breadfruit  and 
the  date  palm. 

How  Man  Uses  Plants.  Plants  have  always  furnished 
shelter  for  many  wild  animals  and  for  man.  As  civilization 
developed,  this  primitive  shelter  under  branches  developed 
into  rude  huts  of  different  structures  such  as  grasses,  branches, 
and  bark.  Still  further  development  came  in  the  shape  of 
clothing  and  wooden  buildings.  Plants  also  furnish  us 
shade  and  ornamental  trees.  They  beautify  our  grounds  and 
appeal  to  our  aesthetic  sense  by  their  beautiful  foliage  and 
flowers.  They  contribute  not  only  to  our  food  and  shelter, 
but  to  our  comforts  and  pleasures  as  well.  Wood  enters 
largely  into  the  construction  of  tools  and  vehicles.    Wood 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  59 

and  coal  furnish  our  fuel.  Wood  and  other  plant  structures 
furnish  our  paper  without  which  civilization  would  have 
been  retarded  for  centuries.  Rubber  is  obtained  from  plants 
and  adds  much  to  the  comforts  of  to-day.  Opium,  tobacco, 
and  whiskey  are  furnished  by  plants.  Plants  then  contribute 
to  our  necessities,  our  comforts,  our  virtues,  and  our  vices. 

Crops  and  Live  Stock  on  the  Farm.  The  relation  of 
plants  and  animals  in  farm  economy  is  very  close.  The 
animal  is  the  best  market  for  much  that  the  farm  produces. 
By  feeding  farm  products  directly  to  animals  the  cost  of 
transportation  and  the  profits  of  the  transportation  com- 
panies are  eliminated,  the  middleman's  charges  and  profits 
are  saved,  and  the  farmer,  dealing  directly  with  the  ultimate 
consumer,  gets  the  actual  value  of  his  products. 

The  animal  acts  like  a  concentrator  in  mining  operations, 
decreasing  the  bulk  and  increasing  the  value  of  the  product. 
It  also  reacts  on  the  crops  themselves,  as  the  animal  in  its 
growth  takes  largely  from  that  part  of  the  crop  that  is 
derived  from  the  air  and  water,  and  leaves  much  of  that 
taken  from  the  soil  in  a  condition  to  be  returned  to  the  land  as 
manure.  It  thus  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  conse- 
quently the  productivity  of  the  farm. 

The  combination  of  grain  and  stock  raising  on  the  same 
farm  tends  also  to  a  more  even  and  economical  distribution 
of  labor  throughout  the  year.  In  grain  raising  alone  much 
labor  is  required  in  harvest  time  when  labor  costs  highest 
and  is  often  unobtainable  at  any  price.  On  the  other  hand, 
during  nearly  half  of  the  year  there  is  no  work  whatever  for 
the  teams  and  little  for  the  men. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  difiference  between  organic  and  inorganic  matter? 

2.  What  are  the  fundamental  activities  of  living  things? 

3.  What  is  the  living  substance? 

4.  Could  animals  live  in  a  region  where  there  were  no  plants? 

5.  Which  come  first — plants  or  animals? 


60  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


6.  If  a  lump  of  coal  is  burned,  could  it  ever  be  changed  to  coal  again? 

How? 

7.  Can  an  animal  form  stone?     How?     Does  a  stone  ever  help  to 

feed  an  animal? 

8.  Could  plants  continue  to  live  without  animal  life? 

9.  Why  do  not  animals  increase  until  they  destroy  all  the  plants? 

10.  Are  insects  of  value  to  plants? 

11.  Do  animals  help  to  distribute  plants?    Are  the  plants  they  dis- 

tribute of  benefit  to  them? 

12.  A  map  of  the  world  showing  the  wheat  belt  would  also  shew 

what  other  belt? 

13.  What  do  plants  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  man? 

14.  Should  a  farmer  raise  both  plants  and  animals?     Why? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  While  on  a  trip,  find  a  rock  with  lichens  on  it.     Tear  these  off 

and  examine.     Explain  what  has  happened  to  the  rock. 

2.  Weigh  a  green  plant,  then  dry  it,  and  weigh  again. 

Loss  =  water. 
Now  burn  and  weigh  the  ash. 

Loss  =  organic  matter  built  up  from  carbon  dioxide,  nitrogen 

and  water. 

Ash  =  what  was  taken  from  the  soil  except  nitrogen. 

3.  Go  on  a  trip  outside  or  to  a  greenhouse.     Study  flowers  to  see 

which  ones  depend  upon  insects  for  fertilization.  Note  the 
devices  on  the  flowers  to  insure  insect  cross-fertilization. 

4.  Collect  seed  from  animals,  clothing,  etc.     See  if  there  is  any  use- 

ful plant  among  them.  Study  cocklebur,  Spanish  bayonet, 
burdock,  beggar's-ticks,  and  other  burs.  Observe  particularly 
special  devices  for  cUnging. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  physiography  or  geology. 

College  Physiography,  Tarr  and  Martin. 

Soils,  Hilgard. 

The  Soil,  King. 

Physiography,  Salisbury. 

The  Origin  and  Nature  of  Soils,  Shaler.     Part  I,  Twelfth  Report 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buchman. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  WEATHER 

A  farm  may  be  operated  according  to  the  most  approved 
methods  and  yet  fail  on  account  of  some  unexpected  change 
in  the  weather.  A  dry  spell,  with  hot  winds,  in  an  unirri- 
gated  region  may  wither  the  grain;  a  sudden  storm  may  find 
the  grain  shocked  or  hay  stacked  in  the  field;  hail  may  knock 
down  the  fruit  or  grain,  or  a  frost  kill  the  vegetables  or 
young  fruit  blossoms.  In  most  cases,  were  unfavorable 
weather  known  ahead,  measures  could  be  taken  which  would 
greatly  diminish  any  possible  damage.  By  means  of  the 
daily  reports  of  the  weather  bureau,  now  so  easily  accessible, 
and  by  some  familiarity  with  local  conditions,  a  person  may 
know  what  to  expect  in  a  general  way  with  reasonable  cer- 
tainty for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  ahead.  It  should 
be  of  some  interest  to  know  how  the  staff  of  the  weather 
bureau  is  able  to  forecast  the  weather,  and  of  some  value 
to  be  able  to  use  their  maps  and  reports. 

Air  Pressure.  The  earth  is  surrounded  by  a  great  ocean 
of  air  at  least  twenty  miles  deep.  This  air,  like  every- 
thing else,  is  attracted  by  the  earth  and  thus  has  weight. 
Because  all  the  overlying  layers  of  air  are  being  drawn  toward 
the  earth,  they  press  upon  the  lower  layers  and  against 
any  surface  with  which  the  air  is  in  contact. 

A  can,  about  one  fifth  full  of  water,  corked  while  it  is 
rapidly  boiling,  and  immediately  removed  from  the  source 
of  heat  and  cooled  with  cold  water  poured  on  the  outside 
will  collapse  on  account  of  air  pressure.  A  tumbler  com- 
pletely filled  with  water  and  having  a  piece  of  paper  over  the 
top  will,  when  inverted,  hold  the  water,  on  account  of  the 
air  pressure  against  the  paper. 

61 


62  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

The  pressure  of  the  gas  at  a  point  in  the  atmosphere 
depends  on  how  much  gas  there  is  above  it  pressing  down, 
and  hence  the  greater  the  depth  of  air,  the  greater  the  pres- 
sure. For  example,  the  pressure  is  approximately  8.5 
pounds  per  square  inch  on  Mt.  Blanc,  10.5  pounds  at  Quito, 
12.5  at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  14.7  pounds  to  the  square  inch 
at  the  sea  level. 

Air  Cools  When  It  Rises.  It  is  well-known  that  the  tops 
of  high  mountains,  even  under  the  equator,  are  always 
covered  with  snow.  It  has  been  found  by  the  aid  of  the 
airship  that  the  higher  one  ascends  the  colder  it  gets,  the 
rate  being  approximately  one  degree  for  every  three  hundred 
feet.  Pressure  has  caused  varying  densities  in  the  atmos- 
phere. The  denser  the  atmosphere  is,  the  more  particles 
of  air  it  contains.  As  heat  is  supposed  to  result  from  the 
motion  or  agitation  of  molecules,  the  more  molecules  there 
are  the  more  agitation  there  is  and,  therefore,  the  more  heat. 
The  rays  of  the  sun  in  passing  through  the  rarer  parts  of  the 
atmosphere,  therefore,  produced  little  heat  and  through  the 
lower  or  denser  parts,  much  more  heat. 

The  neck  of  a  bicycle  tire  becomes  warm  while  the  air  is 
being  compressed,  or  the  tire  pumped  up,  and,  conversely, 
it  grows  cool  when  the  air  is  let  out  and  allowed  to  expand. 
When  air  rises  for  any  cause  it  cools  very  considerably  for 
two  reasons.  First,  it  is  going  into  a  locality  where  the 
conditions  are  colder,  and,  secondly,  it  is  expanding  because 
it  is  going  to  a  locality  of  diminished  pressure.  As  a  result  of 
expansion  alone,  dry  air  cools  1  degree  F.  for  every  183  feet 
of  elevation. 

Dew  and  Rain.  Water  left  in  the  chicken  yard  or  in  the 
water  trough  will  disappear,  passing  off  in  the  air  as  invis- 
ible, gaseous  water.  The  air  always  contains  some  of  it,  the 
supply  being  kept  up  by  the  evaporation  from  lakes  and 
rivers.  Whenever  the  air  is  sufficiently  cooled  the  water 
contained  in  it  condenses,  forming  minute  drops.     This  result 


THE  WEATHER 


63 


is  observed  in  the  formation  of  dew,  causing  the  dampness 
of  meadows  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning,  and  in 
the  ''sweating"  of  pitchers  or  glasses  of  ice  water  in  the 

summer,  and  in  the  cloud  that 
the  breath  makes  on  a  cold  day. 
The  same  invisible  gaseous 
water  is  in  the  air  exhaled  in  the 
summer  time.  When  the  air  is 
cold  this  is  condensed  to  a  cloud 
which  is  nothing  more  than  an 
aggregate  of  very  small  drops 
of  water.  The  clouds  to  be 
observed  in  the  sky  are  identi- 
cal in  appearance  and  structure 
with  the  one  just  mentioned  and 
are  also  formed  by  the  cooling 
of  the  moisture-laden  air,  due 
either  to  mixing  with  colder  air 
or  much  oftener  to  rising  to 
higher  altitudes.  Just  as  the 
little  particles  of  dust  float 
around  in  the  air  for  days  on 
account  of  the  resistance  of  the 
air  to  their  fall,  before  they 
settle,  so  these  little  drops  fall 
very  slowly  on  account  of  the 
uprising  air  current  that  caused 
their  formation  and  on  account 
of  their  smallness.  Ifthey 
cool  further,  and  the  drops  enlarge,  they  fall  faster,  and 
we  say  that  it  rains.  When  the  air  is  colder  than  the  freez- 
ing point,  snow  or  hail  result. 

Cause  of  Winds.  All  points  on  the  earth  are  not  equally 
heated,  but  more  heat  is  received  at  the  equator  that  at 
points  north  or  south  of  it;  and,  at  the  same  latitude,  land 


Figure  21. — Standard  rain  and  snow 
gauge. 


64 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


gets  warmer  than  the  adjoining  water  even  though  land  and 
water  receive  the  same  amount  of  heat.  The  air  from  the 
hotter  area  expands  and  flows  over  at  the  top  upon  the  ad- 
jacent air,  making  the  air  pressure  greater  where  the  extra 
air  is,  and  less  in  the  section  whence  it  came.     Thus,  on 

account  of  the  unequal  heating, 
differences  in  air  pressure  are  set 
up  and  the  air  then  flows  from 
the  points  of  high  to  the  points 
of  low  pressure,  causing  winds. 

Weather  Observations.  Storm 
and  clear  weather  areas  are  usu- 
ally in  the  form  of  great  circular 
rotating  whirls  of  air  of  several 
hundred  miles  in  diameter.  They 
usually  form  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  or  enter 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  travel 
eastward  across  the  country,  often 
getting  nearly  to  Asia  before  they 
break  up.  Their  position  is 
determined  as  follows: 

At  the  same  instant  each  day 
and  at  widely  separated  stations  careful  observations  of  the 
condition  of  the  weather  are  made  and  are  exchanged  by 
telegraph.  These  are  represented  on  maps  which  are  often 
published  in  newspapers.  They  are  used  by  the  weather 
bureau  and  by  others,  for  making  weather  forecasts. 

Weather  Bureau  Charts.  Curves  are  drawn  through  the 
places  that  have  the  same  air  pressure.  At  the  center  of  one 
of  the  sets  of  concentric  curves  ''low"  is  written,  meaning 
that  the  air  pressure  is  lower  there  than  over  the  surround- 
ing region.  Similarly,  **high"  is  written  in  another  place. 
From  the  arrows  it  is  seen  that  the  air  is  moving  outward  in 
all  directions  from  the  high  and  is  entering  the  low  from 


Figure  22.- 


-Anemometcr  and  wind 
vane. 


THE  WEATHER 


65 


Figure  23. — Showing  a  storm  center. 


all  sides.  Around  the  high  the  air  is  moving  spirally  out- 
ward and  downward  and  in  the  direction  of  the  movement 
of  the  hands  of  a  clock,  while  around  the  low  the  air  is  com- 
ing in,  rotating  in  the  opposite  direction  and  rising.  There- 
fore, the  low  section 
is  the  storm  area, 
and  the  high  the 
fair  weather  section. 
Notice  on  the  map 
that  the  shaded 
area  which  repre- 
sents the  land  where 
it  is  storming  is 
around  the  low, 
while  the  high  is 
unshaded.  On  ac- 
count of  this  spiral 
or  rotary  motion 
the  cold  air  from  the  Northwest  and  the  warm  air  heavily 
laden  with  moisture  from  the  South  are  mixed  and  then 
further  cooled  by  the  expansion  as  the  mixture  rises,  causing 
the  precipitation. 

It  is  important  to  get  a  clear  understanding  of  the  dif- 
ference between  the  movements  of  the  air  in  the  low  and  the 
movement  of  the  low  itself,  or  its  translation  from  place  to 
place.  Since  these  great  eddies  or  storms  are  carried  along 
by  the  general  easterly  movement  of  the  atmosphere  in  the 
middle  latitudes,  the  wind  must  blow  into  the  front  of  the 
storm  in  a  direction  partly  or  wholly  contrary  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  storm  itself.  The  weather  from  day  to  day 
depends  wholly  on  the  movement  of  these  highs  and  lows. 
In  the  temperate  zone  they  drift  toward  the  East  at  the 
usual  rate  of  six  hundred  miles  a  day  or  about  twenty-five 
miles  an  hour,  traveling  a  little  south  of  East  and  then  a 
little   north   of   East,  ultimately   reaching   New   England. 

5— 


66  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

They  may  go  twice  as  fast  or  stop  and  remain  stationary 
a  day  or  two,  much  to  the  embarrassment  of  the  forecaster. 

As  the  storm  approaches,  fine  feathery  clouds  are  to  be 
seen;  (notice  the  chart);  later,  low  rain  clouds  form  and  the 
temperature  rises;  then  comes  the  rain;  finally,  as  the  low 
passes  over,  the  clouds  begin  to  dissolve  and  we  have  clear- 
ing weather  and  falling  temperature.  Meanwhile,  the 
wind  will  have  reversed  direction  and  the  air  pressure  will 
have  sunk  and  risen  again. 

Value  of  Information.  When  a  high  develops  in  the 
North  and  a  low  in  the  South  and  they  move  off  very  slowly, 
we  may  expect  a  cold  wave,  due  to  the  cold  north  wind ;  and 
word  is  passed  to  the  fruit  men.  Mariners  now  receive 
word  by  wireless  and  the  flying  of  signals  from  lighthouses 
when  a  hurricane  is  approaching.  The  smaller  boats  make 
for  the  harbor  and  those  in  the  harbor  postpone  sailing. 
The  government  is  also  able  to  predict  the  flood  stage  of 
rivers  from  the  data  they  collect  of  the  amount  of  rain  fall- 
ing in  the  mountains,  the  slope  and  penetrability  of  the 
ground,  and  from  a  study  of  previous  floods. 

The  farmer,  by  noticing  the  predictions  of  the  weather 
bureau,  or,  if  he  has  a  barometer  and  observes  it,  may  be 
fairly  well  guided  in  many  of  his  agricultural  operations. 

Climate.  The  weather  expresses  the  condition  of  the 
air  at  a  definite  time — hot  or  cold,  clear  or  cloudy,  dry  or 
wet,  calm  or  windy.  One  may  properly  speak  of  the 
weather  of  yesterday  but  not  of  the  climate;  for  the  climate 
is  the  sum  of  the  weather  averaged  over  a  long  period  of  time 
to  eliminate  irregularities  or  variation  from  day  to  day. 

The  general  characteristic  of  the  climate  of  the  inter- 
mountain  West  is  its  aridity,  the  yearly  rainfall  being  but 
about  fifteen  inches.  Where  it  is  not  much  less  than  ten 
inches  grain  may  be  grown  by  the  so-called  dry-farming 
methods,  but  in  the  more  favored  localities  not  too  far 
from  streams  irrigation  is  practiced.     On  account  of  the 


THE  WEATHER  67 

clearness  and  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  the  heat  of  summer 
is  not  nearly  as  oppressive  as  in  the  humid  regions,  and  the 
daily  and  yearly  range  of  temperature  is  large. 

Hay,  grain,  and  fruit  may  be  profitably  grown  in  this 
region,  but  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  climate 
of  its  different  parts  and  attention  should  be  paid  not  only 
to  the  character  of  the  soil  and  market,  but  also  to  the 
crops  best  adapted  to  the  climate  and  rainfall. 

Climate  and  Man.  Dry  deserts,  the  torrid  zone,  and 
the  polar  regions  have  not  proved  themselves  favorable  for 
the  development  of  civilized  man.  Here  it  is  too  difficult 
to  gain  a  living.  A  uniform  climate  is  depressing  and  pro- 
duces little  development.  In  a  climate  that  is  neither  too 
dry  nor  too  extreme  in  temperature,  habits  of  industry  and 
thrift,  which  have  brought  civilization  out  of  savagery,  are 
made  necessary  but  not  too  difficult. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  weather  bureau?     How  does  it  do  its  work? 

2.  What  do  you  know  about  air  pressure? 

3.  What  are  dew  and  rain? 

4.  Explain  the  cause  of  winds. 

5.  How  do  storms  move  across  the  country? 

6.  What  are  weather  charts? 

7.  How  is  man  affected  by  climate? 

8.  How  does  weather  affect  crops? 

9.  What  is  "the  weather"? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  weather  maps.  If  these  are  not  available,  write  for  them 
to  the  "Local  Office,  Weather  Bureau"  in  your  state  capital. 
Learn  how  to  read  them  and  how  to  predict  weather  from  them. 

REFERENCES 

Descriptive  Meteorology,  Moore. 
Meteorology,  Milham. 
Physics  of  Agriculture,  King. 
Weather  Reports, 


CHAPTER  IX 


PHYSIOGRAPHIC  FORCES  OF  THE  EARTH 


All  that  we  know  of  early  geological  history  is  written 
in  the  character  of  the  rock  that  is  now  exposed  on  the 
surface  or  that  has  been  laid  bare  by  excavations  and  by 
landslides  or  upheavals.  A  brief  knowledge  of  rock  and  an 
interpretation  of  the  geological  history  of  the  earth  are  essen- 
tial to  a  clear  understanding  of  our  present  earth. 

Classification  of  Rocks.  Rocks  which  are  formed  by 
vulcanism,  that  is,  those  rocks  which  have  been  at  one  time 
in  a  molten  condition  but  which  are  now  hard,  are  classed 
as  igneous;  the  other  rocks,  which  are  the  hardened  materials 
deposited  in  the  seas,  are  classed  as  sedimentary.  When 
either  of  these  classes  undergoes  a  change  arising  from  heat 
and  pressure,  the  rocks  are  termed  metamorphic. 

The  following  arrangement  gives  a  brief  classification 
and  probably  a  better  understanding  of  what  is  meant  by 
these  classes: 

Table  II.— Classification  of  Rocks. 


Igneous 

Sedimentary 

Metamorphic 

granite 
basalt 

limestone 

marble 

sandstone 

auartzite 
slate 

trachite 

shale 

porphory 

conglomerate 

gneiss 

obsidian 

schist 

syenite 

Rock  Formation.  Volcanoes  may  cause  lava  flows  on 
the  surface  or  they  may  force  beds  of  molten  rock  between 
other  layers.  When  the  top  layer  is  worn  off,  the  igneous 
rock  may  be  exposed.  Granite  is  so  formed;  basalt  results 
from  surface  flows.     Sedimentary  rocks  are  formed  in  two 

68 


PHYSIOGRAPHIC  FORCES  OF  THE  EARTH  69 

ways:  either  (1)  by  rock  particles'  or  soil  grains'  being  washed 
into  ocean  beds  and  covered  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  be  ce- 
mented by  pressure,  or  (2)  by  a  concentration  of  the  shells 
and  skeletons  of  sea  animals  and  dissolved  lime  in  mod- 
erately deep  water.  Limestone  is  formed  by  this  last 
method.  When  limestone  is  covered  and  subjected  for  long 
ages  to  pressure  by  thousands  of  feet  of  rock  above  it,  a 
gradual  change  converts  it  into  marble.  Small  quantities 
of  water  carrying  cementing  materials  may  assist  the  trans- 
formation. Granite  is  changed  to  gneiss,  sandstone  to  quart- 
zite,  and  shale  to  slate. 

Mountain  chains  are  usually  preceded  by  depressions 
in  the  crust  of  the  earth.  When  these  depressions  are 
filled  with  sedimentary  rock  to  the  depth  of  about  five  or 
six  miles,  the  pressure  causes  the  lower  rock  to  soften  and 
yield.  Since  sedimentary  rock  has  less  strength  than  the 
igneous  rock  beside  it  on  the  rim  of  the  depression,  the 
area  of  this  deposit  becomes  a  line  of  weakness.  Now  the 
earth  is  shrinking  largely  from  the  loss  of  gases.  Because 
the  crust  is  larger  than  it  needs  to  be,  wrinkhng  results. 
Yielding  naturally  takes  place  at  the  weakest  point;  hence 
the  sedimentary  material  is  raised  and  is  folded  or  broken 
with  or  without  great  displacements  of  the  broken  rock. 

Faults.  When  the  sedimentary  rock  is  deposited  in  a 
low  place  that  forms  an  apparent  inward  curve,  and  when 
this  is  thrown  into  an  outward  curve,  which  is  longer  than 
an  inward  curve,  a  strain  is  set  up  and  the  sedimentary 
formation  is  broken  into  blocks.  Some  of  the  blocks  are 
raised  and  some  lowered,  forming  a  fault  at  the  place  of 
breaking.  That  portion  which  projects  above  the  surface 
is  known  as  a  fault  scarp,  and  this  class  of  faulting  is  known 
as  a  gravity  fault,  or  a  normal  fault.  W^hen,  however,  sed- 
imentary rock  is  forced  up  by  compression,  it  is  either 
folded  or  faulted,  so  that  one  piece  is  pushed  over  the  other. 
This  type  of  folding  is  known  as  a  thrust  fault. 


70  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

It  is  estimated  that  by  this  last  method  the  American 
continent  has  been  made  narrower  by  more  than  a  hundred 
miles;  that  is,  if  the  folded  sedimentary  rock  were  spread 
out  in  a  horizontal  position,  North  America  would  be  a 
hundred  miles  wider  from  ocean  to  ocean  than  it  is.  Some 
of  these  folds,  as  the  result  of  one  part's  being  pushed  across 
the  top  of  the  other,  are  known  to  overlap  more  than  twelve 
miles. 

Elevation  of  Ocean  Beds.  Much  rock  which  was  formed 
deep  down  in  the  sea  is  now,  in  many  places,  from  one  to 
two  miles  above  the  elevation  at  which  it  was  formed. 
Evidence  is  written  not  only  in  the  character  of  the  rock 
but  in  the  life  of  the  rock  as  well.  Coral  reefs  and  the  re- 
mains of  numerous  other  forms  of  water  life  are  now  found 
as  fossils  more  than  a  mile  above  sea  level. 

Some  coasts  are  gradually  rising  one  or  two  feet  in  a 
century,  and  others  are  sinking  at  about  the  same  rate. 
When  these  processes  have  continued  for  several  centuries, 
broad  patches  of  sea  bottom  are  brought  above  water. 
The  Atlantic  coastal  plain  of  the  southern  United  States 
is  an  example.  The  old  shore  was  at  the  western  edge  of 
the  coastal  plain,  the  so-called  *'fall  line.'*  Much  of  this 
area  is  level  and  sandy,  and  the  coast  line  is  regular  with 
few  indentations.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  coast  is  sink- 
ing, the  water  flows  into  the  valleys  and  causes  irregular 
coast  lines  having  islands,  peninsulas,  and  bays.  The  Pa- 
cific coast  of  Canada  shows  this  phase  of  movement.  Earth- 
quakes are  likely  to  occur  in  either  rising  or  sinking  regions, 
especially  near  the  fault  lines.  The  San  Francisco  and 
Messina  earthquakes  occurred  on  old  fault  lines. 

Volcanoes  have  caused  great  changes  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  by  covering  immense  areas  with  lava.  Sometimes 
valleys  are  filled,  as  in  parts  of  California  and  along  the 
Columbia  and  Snake  rivers.  At  other  times  cities  are  cov- 
ered with  lava  or  ashes,  as  in  the  case  of  Pompeii.     Cones 


PHYSIOGRAPHIC  FORCES  OF  THE  EARTH  71 

are  usually  built  up  around  the  vent  from  which  the  dis- 
charge comes,  though  in  some  instances  the  lava  passes 
outward  from  holes  called  fissures  and  flows  quietly  and 
evenly  over  a  section.  In  whatever  manner  the  lava  issues 
it  gives  a  new  aspect  to  the  area  covered.  The  rock  cools 
and  finally  weathers  into  soil  that  is  rich  or  poor  according 
to  its  nature  and  the  way  in  which  it  decomposes. 

Valleys  formed  wholly  by  crustal  movement  are  known 
as  diastrophic  valleys.  They  are  likely  to  be  narrow  and 
steep-sided.  These  may  be  formed  below  the  level  of  the 
sea  or  below  the  level  of  the  regular  drainage,  and  in  the 
early  period  receive  a  filling  to  crowd  out  the  water  and 
thus  form  the  broad  level  valleys,  not  a  few  of  which  we 
have  at  present.  Many  mountain  valleys  are  of  this  origin. 
The  more  extensive  areas,  which  have  been  raised  up  with 
but  little  folding  or  faulting,  form  the  plateau  areas. 

As  soon  as  one  area  is  raised  above  the  sea,  erosion  begins. 
River  valleys  start  to  form  at  the  base  of  the  elevated 
areas.  These  valleys  grow  longer  and  wider,  adding  to 
themselves  tributaries.  They  grow  deeper  as  the  material 
is  carried  away  and  taken  to  the  lower  lands  by  the  water 
from  melting  snow  and  rain. 

Streams.  As  the  valley  deepens,  its  deeper  parts  get 
into  the  upper  limits  of  the  water  table,  and  the  valley  has 
an  intermittent  stream.  When  the  valley  gets  still  deeper, 
the  stream  cuts  into  or  below  the  water  table,  and  the 
valley  has  a  permanent  stream.  The  stream  cuts  faster 
in  regions  of  softer  rock.  In  such  a  section,  it  will  develop 
a  broad  valley  with  a  flood  plain.  In  this  way  river  valleys 
are  formed. 

It  is,  of  course,  in  this  later  period  that  the  streams  carry 
great  quantities  of  soil  into  the  ocean  to  form  fertile  deltas 
like  those  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Nile,  and  the  Ganges. 
Ocean  waves  gradually  move  a  part  of  this  earth  into  deeper 
water.     If  the  coast  sinks,  it  is  covered  again  and  again 


72  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

until  depths  sufficient  to  cause  rock  formation  are  accu- 
mulated. Meanwhile  the  slow  movements  of  water  on  the 
ocean  bed  are  gradually  filling  the  low  places,  making  the 
ocean  bed  fairly  smooth.  This  smoothing  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  streams,  when  they  enter  bodies  of  water,  lose 
their  power  to  cut  valleys  or  to  transport  anything  except 
the  finest  clay. 

Action  of  Ice.  Much  of  the  earth  has  been  subjected 
at  some  time  to  the  action  of  ice.  Northern  and  central 
Europe,  Canada,  and  northern  United  States  were  glaciated. 
The  ice  tore  off  high  places  and  filled  low  ones.  The  soils 
are  usually  firm  and  fine  except  in  a  district  of  terminal 
moraines,  which  are  composed  of  rock,  gravel,  and  soil  mixed 
indiscriminately.  Except  for  the  morainic  deposits,  these 
glacial  soils  are  generally  fertile,  as  is  shown  in  the  immense 
harvests  of  the  states  of  that  region.  Thousands  of  lakes 
in  Europe  and  North  America,  including  the  Great  Lakes, 
are  the  result  of  the  scouring  and  the  damming  action  of 
the  advancing  and  retreating  ice  sheet.  Many  of  the  smaller 
lakes  have  been  filled  with  sediment,  which  emptied  them 
by  crowding  out  the  water,  thereby  leaving  broad,  level 
tracts  of  fertile  soils,  such  as  those  of  the  Red  River  area 
of  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  and  Canada.  Some  of  the 
scoured  areas  are  almost  bare.  An  example  of  this  con- 
dition is  found  in  Labrador,  parts  of  which  are  nearly  bare 
rock.     New  England  soils  are  also  thin  in  many  places. 

Other  Forces.  Underground  water  constantly  dissolves 
out  some  rock  ingredients  and  carries  them  away  in  solu- 
tion or  deposits  them  in  cracks  in  the  rock  as  seams  of 
mineral.  The  white  streaks  in  limestone  are  slender  bodies 
of  redeposited  calcite  which  was  dissolved  from  the  lime  rock. 

Atmospheric  agencies — wind,  rain,  frost,  heat  and  cold, 
oxygen,  and  moisture — are  constantly  weathering  away  the 
larger  rock  masses,  tending  to  reduce  all  to  soil,  and  thereby 
to  counterbalance  rock  formation. 


PHYSIOGRAPHIC  FORCES  OF  THE  EARTH  73 

Life — both  plant  and  animal — has  exercised  no  small 
force  in  the  molding  of  parts  of  the  earth.  Some  soils  are 
formed  almost  entirely  by  former  plant  life.  Coal  and  oil 
deposits  are  caused  largely,  if  not  entirely,  by  plant  de- 
posits. In  addition,  ores  such  as  the  carbonates  of  lead 
and  iron  contain  much  carbon  dioxide  probably  produced 
by  organisms. 

The  history  of  the  earth  has  been  a  series  of  changes 
resulting  from  the  combined  action  of  these  various  forces. 
Nearly  all  land  areas  have  been  at  some  time  under  water, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fossils  of  water  animals  found  in  the 
rocks.  Rock,  perhaps  millions  of  years  old,  has  been  ex- 
posed by  means  of  movements  in  the  crust  of  the  earth 
or  by  stream  action. 

Some  persons  think  that  the  earth  cooled  from  a  mass 
of  gas,  and  that,  as  it  cooled,  it  gradually  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form  and  condition.  A  more  recent  and  an  apparently 
more  satisfactory  explanation  is  that  small  masses  were 
gradually  collected  by  the  earth  until  it  reached  its  present 
size.  The  old  theory  teaches  that  the  moon  was  thrown 
off  by  the  earth,  but  the  new  one  suggests  that  the  moon  is 
a  distinctly  different  body  which  came  within  the  limits 
of  the  attraction  of  the  earth  and  was  held  in  its  present 
position  by  the  laws  of  gravity.  If  we  accept  the  newer 
teaching,  the  heat  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  should  be 
attributed  in  part  to  the  gaining  of  new  material  and  to  sub- 
stances contained  rather  than  as  a  remnant  of  an  original 
greater  heat  that  is  gradually  escaping. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  are  rocks  classified?     Name  some  in  each  of  the  three  groups. 

2.  How  is  each  kind  of  rock  material  formed? 

3.  Describe  faulting.     How  fast  does  it  take  place?     Explain  the 

kinds. 

4.  Discuss  the  nature  and  cause  of  earthquakes. 


74  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Describe  how  ocean  beds  become  land.     Describe  a  soil  formed  in 

this  way. 

6.  What  part  have  volcanoes  taken  in  forming  the  surface  of  the 

earth? 

7.  Show  the  difference  between  river  valleys  and  diastrophic  valleys. 

8.  How  are  river  valleys  formed? 

9.  How  has  ice  affected  parts  of  the  earth?     Was  this  beneficial? 

Show  why. 

10.  List  the  great  forces  that  have  made  our  earth  what  it  is. 

11.  What  is  known  and  what  is  thought  of  the  past  history  and  origin 

of  the  earth? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  various  rocks  and  group  them.     Learn  to  know  a  few  of 

them  by  sight.     What  is  the  value  of  each  for  soil? 

2.  Find  diagrams  of  mountain  chains  in  any  geography  book.     Model 

your  region.     Secure  clay  or  putty  and  make  flat  mass  deep 
enough  for  highest  mountains.     Carve  out  the  valleys. 

3.  Find  diagrams  of  a  fault.     Lay  down  layers  of  various  wet  soils. 

Lift  one  side  until  layers  break.     Note  the  displacement — that 
is  the  fault. 

4.  Collect  pictures  of  volcanoes  and  of  the  effects  of  volcanic  action. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  geology. 
Any  textbook  of  physiography. 
Any  school  geography. 


CHAPTER  X 

GEOLOGICAL   HISTORY   OF  THE  INTERMOUNTAIN 

WEST 

The  great  intermountain  section  of  the  United  States  is 
essentially  alike  in  its  geological  growth.  In  general  the 
climate  and  the  soil  are  alike,  in  spite  of  the  minor  differ- 
ences that  occur.  The  valleys  are  similar,  though  they,  of 
course,  vary  in  size  and  shape. 

Rock.  Throughout  all  the  West,  the  mountains  are 
composed  largely  of  sedimentary  rock.  In  western  Utah, 
most  of  Nevada,  and  southern  Idaho,  limestone  is  most 
prevalent,  with  here  and  there  small  areas  of  sandstone, 
quartzite,  and  shale.  In  eastern  Utah,  western  Colorado, 
and  adjacent  Wyoming,  shales  are  common. 

This  sedimentary  formation  shows  that  during  the  early 
geological  periods  this  whole  western  section  was  a  sea  or 
an  arm  of  the  ocean.  This  ocean  continued  for  a  long  period 
of  time;  for,  in  many  places,  several  thousand  feet  of  lime- 
stone are  exposed.  It  is  estimated  that  this  limestone  prob- 
ably did  not  form  much  faster  than  one  foot  in  a  thousand 
years.  Associated  with  the  limestone  is  much  granite,  sand- 
stone, and  shale,  materials  which  do  not  form  much  more 
rapidly  than  limestone. 

The  great  Rocky  Mountain  chain  is  also  largely  sedimen- 
tary with  granite  outcroppings  in  various  sections,  notably 
in  parts  of  Colorado  and  Montana.  Much  of  Idaho,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  has  been  covered  with  a  great  basaltic 
lava  sheet. 

Land  Formation.  After  the  western  section  had  been 
covered  with  water  for  ages  there  came  a  time  when  the  sec- 
tion yielded  and  part  of  the  area  was  raised  above  the  water. 

75 


76  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

It  began  to  be  weathered  by  the  atmospheric  agencies  and 
contributed  part  of  its  mass  to  the  rock  which  was  being 
formed  in  the  water.  This  deformation  did  not  occur  all  at 
once,  but  continued  through  a  long  period.  Sometimes  a 
slight  lowering  set  in,  so  that  the  area  at  one  time  above 
water  was  at  another  time  under  the  water  and  received  an 
additional  deposit. 

Mountain  Growth  in  the  West.  The  land  which  was 
brought  up  above  the  sea  formed  mountains  or  plateaus. 
The  first  mountains  raised  in  this  section  were  the  Rockies, 
followed  by  the  Uinta  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 
A  little  later  the  Wasatch  ranges  were  heaved  above  the 
ocean.  Inland  seas  were  formed  about  the  islands  raised. 
Some  of  these  inland  seas  were  drained,  some  were  filled  up, 
and  others  largely  evaporated.  The  reaction  which  took 
place  in  this  adjustment  of  the  crust  of  the  earth  resulted  in 
the  forming  of  many  of  the  valleys  which  are  in  this  section. 
It  must  not  be  thought  that  this  movement  went  on  rapidly, 
for  it  probably  developed  no  faster  than  it  is  going  on  at 
present.  It  is  thought  by  good  authority  that  our  moun- 
tains are  being  raised  two  or  three  feet  a  century. 

The  mountains  of  the  Great  Basin  are  largely  block 
mountains;  that  is,  the  thick  sediments  of  the  Great  Basin 
were  broken  into  blocks  which  in  the  re-adjustment  were 
tipped  or  tilted  so  they  show  the  fault  along  one  side, 
making  a  steep  slope  on  the  fault  side  and  a  more  gradual 
one  on  the  other.  If  a  series  of  layers  sloping  upward  should 
break,  letting  one  half  drop,  a  deep  V-shaped  hollow  would 
be  formed.  The  faulted  side  would  be  steep.  This  condi- 
tion is  about  what  is  found  in  the  ranges  of  Utah,  Nevada, 
and  southern  Idaho.  In  the  Wasatch  fault  there  was  a  dis- 
placement of  about  four  thousand  feet  near  Salt  Lake  City. 
The  other  displacements  were  larger  or  smaller  but  similar. 
In  the  case  of  the  Colorado  and  Columbia  plateaus  the  up- 
lift was  more  uniform.     On  this  account  the  areas  are  more 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  INTERMOUNTAIN  WEST     77 

nearly  flat.  The  greatest  irregularities  are  due  to  stream 
action,  which  washes  out  gullies. 

Valleys.  Because  the  fault  lines  run  mostly  north  and 
south,  the  mountain  ranges  tend  to  run  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. For  the  same  reason  most  of  the  valleys  are  longer 
from  north  to  south  than  from  east  to  west.  The  valleys 
may  be  large  or  small,  but  are  usually  of  intermediate  size. 

The  useful  valleys  in  the  section  may  all  be  put  into  two 
classes.  Valleys  like  Bear  Lake  Valley,  San  Luis  Valley, 
Humboldt  Valley,  and  Salt  Lake  Valley  have  been  the  result 
of  diastrophism,  or  great  earth  changes;  the  valleys  of  Green 
River,  Snake  River,  Platte  River,  and  Colorado  River  have 
been  formed  by  river  erosion. 

The  useful  part  of  the  western  area  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses is  largely  confined  to  the  valleys.  The  character  of 
the  soil  in  the  valley  largely  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
rock  in  the  mountains  surrounding  it.  There  is  little  soil 
in  the  western  area  that  is  being  used  where  it  was  formed. 
The  soil  was  disintegrated  from  the  rocks  on  the  highlands 
and  carried  to  the  lowlands.  In  this  way  many  of  the  val- 
leys were  filled  with  an  alluvial  layer  rich  in  plant  food. 

Alkali.  Some  of  the  valleys,  however,  contain  heavy 
clay  soils  devoid  of  organic  material  but  bearing  large  per- 
centages of  alkali  salts.  One  ocean  arm  shut  off  by  land 
occupied  eastern  Utah,  western  Colorado,  and  southwestern 
Wyoming.  When  the  climate  became  arid,  evaporation 
exceeded  the  rainfall  and  the  water  disappeared  as  vapor. 
This  evaporation  left  considerable  salt  in  the  beds  of  the  in- 
land seas.  When  erosion  began,  the  salt  was  leached  into 
the  soils  of  the  bottom  of  the  valleys  or  washed  into  lakes 
of  the  region.  A  large  part  of  the  mineral  in  Great  Salt 
Lake  came  from  this  source. 

Lakes  Bonneville  and  Lahontan.  In  a  later  period,  after 
the  valleys  and  mountains  of  our  sections  were  formed, 


78  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

climatic  conditions  so  changed  as  to  give  a  materially  in- 
creased precipitation  which  resulted  in  filling  the  lower  basins 
with  water.  This  change  in  climatic  conditions  resulted  in 
periods  of  glaciation  in  the  higher  altitudes.  The  waters 
thus  formed  contributed  to  the  lakes  of  Bonneville  andLahon- 
tan.  During  the  Bonneville  period  a  thick  accumulation 
was  deposited  over  its  area.  In  these  deposits  are  located 
the  richer  valleys  of  western  Utah. 

In  the  case  of  Bonneville,  the  water  continued  to  rise 
until  a  lake  more  than  a  thousand  feet  deep  covered  an  area 
of  nearly  twenty  thousand  square  miles.  At  this  period 
the  lake  was  tapped  from  the  north  at  Red  Rock  pass  near 
Oxford,  Idaho,  giving  it  an  outlet  which  continued  for  a  long 
period  of  time.  The  outlet  lowered  the  surface  of  the  lake 
about  250  feet.  The  remainder  of  the  lake  down  to  the 
present  Salt  Lake  has  been  lost  entirely  by  evaporation. 
Water  marks  show  the  beach  lines  where  the  water  stood  at 
various  levels.  The  history  of  Lahontan  in  Nevada  is  similar 
except  that  it  had  no  outlet. 

Lake-formed  Soils.  During  the  lake  period  the  wash- 
ings from  the  valleys  and  mountains  around  contributed 
largely  to  the  filling  of  this  lake.  In  many  places  this  filling 
is  hundreds  of  feet  thick.  This  old  lake  bed  has  afforded 
the  richest  valleys  and  the  best  farming  areas  in  the  states 
of  Utah  and  Nevada  and  at  the  same  time  has  formed  great 
areas  of  desert  and  worthless  country.  Benches,  or  deltas, 
consisting  largely  of  gravel,  lie  near  the  canyons  where  the 
still  water  caused  immediate  settling.  Sandy  and  loamy  ma- 
terial was  deposited  around  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  forming 
a  middle  belt,  while  clay  reached  the  valley  bottoms.  The 
middle  belt  is  much  the  best  farming  land,  because  it  is 
free  from  alkali  and  contains  little  gravel.  The  benches  of 
the  whole  West  are  largely  gravel  deltas  where  the  streams 
dropped  the  heaviest  particles  when  they  flowed  into  the 
lakes.     The  valley  bottoms,  where  alkali  collects  in  heavy 


GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  INTERMOUNTAIN  WEST     79 

soil,  are  likely  to  be  alkaline  or  to  become  so,  if  higher  lands 
are  overirrigated. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kinds  of  rock  are  most  common  in  the  West? 

2.  What  are  block  mountains?     How  were  they  formed? 

3.  How  were  mountain  valleys  formed? 

4.  What  is  alkali? 

5.  Where  did  it  originate? 

6.  What  are  the  evidences  that  the  Great  Basin  once  held  lakes? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Look  up  diagrams  of  river  valleys  and  diastrophic  valleys.     Visit 

some,  if  near  either.  Model  in  clay.  Carve  out  for  river 
valley.  Make  a  fault  for  diastrophic  valley,  and  then  fill  in 
with  loose  earth. 

2.  Find  diagrams  or  pictures  of  waterfalls.     Discuss  how  they  ars 

changing  the  earth.     If  near  one,  visit  it.     If  not,  make  a 

small  model. 
S.     Collect  fossils.     Explain  what  they  teach. 
4.     In  clay  or  sand  model  out  a  basin.     Pour  in  water.     Agitate 

gently  to  make  small  waves.     Observe  beach  Hues.     Cause  a 

small  stream  to  run  into  lake.     Note  the  delta.     This  shows 

action  of  old  lakes  on  the  surface  of  the  land. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  geology. 

Most  textbooks  of  physiography. 

Most  school  geographies. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SOIL  FORMATION 

Soils  are  the  earthy  material  in  which  plants  have  their 
anchorage  and  from  which  they  obtain  their  water  and  part 
of  their  food.  They  are  in  reality  disintergrated  rock  inti- 
mately mixed  with  varying  quantities  of  decaying  plant  and 
animal  residues.  They  are  derived  from  the  native  rocks  by 
a  complex  process  known  as  weathering.  The  agents  at 
work  in  these  processes  are  changes  of  temperature,  the 
action  of  air,  water,  ice  and  plant  and  animal  life.  These  are 
continually  modifying  the  earth's  surface. 

Temperature  Changes.  Probably  the  greatest  factor  in 
soil  formation  is  change  of  temperature;  for,  by  it  huge  rocks 
are  torn  from  their  mooring  and  then  broken  into  fragments. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  most  substances  expand  when 
heated  and  contract  when  cooled.  Now,  most  rocks  are 
built  up  of  a  number  of  different  minerals.  These,  when 
heated,  expand  and  contract  unequally;  hence  parts  are 
put  under  a  strain  which  at  times  is  sufficient  to  cause  cracks 
of  varying  size.  Throughout  the  long  hot  days  of  summer, 
the  rocks  are  heated  to  a  comparatively  high  temperature, 
as  the  boy  realizes  who  has  chased  barefoot  over  their  sur- 
face in  quest  of  grasshoppers,  butterflies,  or  wild  flowers. 
At  night  they  are  cooled  again.  This  continual  heating  and 
cooling  gradually  causes  small  crevices  to  appear  in  even 
the  most  resistant  rock.  In  time  these  become  filled  with 
dust  and  water.  When  the  cold  nights  of  autumn  come, 
this  water  freezes.  Water,  when  freezing,  expands  with  a 
force  that  is  almost  irresistible,  as  broken  water  pipes  each 
winter  bear  witness.  When  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  are 
filled  with  water,  the  freezing  has  sufficient  force  to  break 

80 


SOIL  FORMATION 


81 


off  rock  fragments.  At  times  huge  rocks  break  loose  and, 
if  on  the  mountain  side,  roll  into  the  valley  below  where 
they  are  slowly  ground  into  smaller  and  smaller  particles 
by  various  other  processes.     The  speed  with  which  rock 

weathers  varies  greatly  in 
different  localities,  as  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Cleopatra's 
Needle,  the  monument  brought 
from  Egypt  and  set  up  in 
Central  Park,  New  York,  some 
forty  years  ago,  has  suffered 
much  more  during  the  few 
years  that  it  has  stood  there 
than  during  the  centuries  it 
stood  in  Egypt.  In  the  arid 
West  the  wide  daily  fluctua- 
tions of  temperature  are  potent 
factors  in  the  disintegration  of 
rock  and  rock  material. 

The  Atmosphere.  After 
the  rocks  have  been  broken 
into  small  pieces  they  become 
a  prey  to  the  atmosphere, 
which,  "when  looked  at  as  a  whole,  has  only  exceptional 
calms,  usually  being  in  motion  either  as  the  gentle  breeze, 
the  cyclonic  wind,  or  the  restless  tornado,  but  always  in 
motion.  These  movements  do  not  tamely  confine  themselves 
to  horizontal  paths,  but  the  gases  rise  and  plunge,  pursue 
broad  curves  and  narrow  spirals,  and  would  appear,  to  an  eye 
that  could  see  them  from  above,  a  tumult,  like  the  sea  in 
storm.  If  we  add  to  these  mechanical  operations  the  effi- 
cient chemical  function  of  the  atmosphere,  we  shall  be  ready 
to  agree  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  agencies  that 
helps  to  mold  and  fashion  the  quahty  of  the  outer  parts  of 
our  earth." 

6— 


Figure  24. — Changes  in  temperature 
gradually  wear  away  fhe  most  resistant 
rock.  Near  Bluff  City,  Utah.  (After 
Drs.  Cross  and  Gilbert,  U.  S.  G.  S.) 


82  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Wind.  Wind  picks  up  and  transports  the  loose  sand  and 
dirt  from  the  high  to  the  low  places,  ever  grinding  it  finer  and 
finer  as  it  goes.  There  have  been,  in  Colorado,  times  when 
sand  drifts  a  foot  high  have  been  piled  on  a  railroad  track  in 
half  an  hour,  thirteen  carloads  of  sand  being  removed  from 


mM 

i^tr^^-'  TViC^'CC^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M 

fe' 

Figure  25. — The  action  of  wind.     White  Valley,  western  Utah. 


a  single  platform  on  one  occasion.  The  soils  of  the  famous 
Palouse  wheat  regions  of  eastern  Washington,  eastern 
Oregon,  and  northern  Idaho,  were  probably  formed  in  just 
this  manner.  The  effect  of  wind  is  not  confined  to  the  trans- 
porting of  sand  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another; 
but  the  sharp  grains  of  sand  are,  while  in  the  air,  ground 
against  each  other,  and  blown  against  the  surface  of  rocks 
with  such  force  that  cliffs  are  slowly  worn  away.  We  often 
see,  in  the  mountains,  places  where  winds  have  carved  from 
rock  fantastic  shapes  by  the  continuous  impact  of  sand. 
Indeed  the  sand  blast  is  such  an  effective  agent  that  it  is 
used  to-day  in  many  of  the  arts  where  a  hard  surface  is  to 
be  ground  down. 

The  effectiveness  of  this  agent  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
facts  that  the  telegraph  wire  along  the  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 


BOIL  FORMATION  83 

way  has  had  to  be  renewed  after  eleven  years,  for  the  con- 
tinuous impact  of  the  sand  had  reduced  the  wire  to  one  half 
its  original  diameter.  It  is  also  found  necessary  to  protect 
by  means  of  piles  of  rock  or  short,  additional  posts  the 
telegraph  poles  along  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  through 
the  San  Bernadino  pass  in  southern  California,  in  order  to 
save  them  from  the  action  of  the  driving  sands.  In  the 
humid  regions,  the  soil  is  protected  by  a  dense  growth  of 
vegetation,  but  in  the  arid  regions  the  exposed  sands  are  at 
the  mercy  of  the  winds. 

Furthermore,  the  wind  often  uproots  trees  which  have 
grown  between  rocks  on  mountain  sides,  tearing  off  consider- 
able quantities  of  rock  which  tumble  into  the  valley  below. 

Oxidation.  Besides  the  physical  actions,  the  atmosphere 
has  another  action  known  as  chemical  action.  In  this  the 
rocks  are  not  only  changed  in  form  but  in  composition. 
When  iron  is  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  it  becomes 
coated  with  rust  and  increases  in  size.  When  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  gains  access  to  the  crevices  of  the  rock,  iron  and  some 
other  constituents  slowly  oxidize  and  pass  from  firm,  resist- 
ant rock  to  a  loose,  noncoherent  mass  which  may  be  readily 
acted  upon  by  other  forces.  The  atmosphere  also  furnishes 
various  acids,  which,  in  connection  with  water,  slowly  dis- 
solve parts  of  the  rock. 

Solvent  Action  of  Water.  Even  pure  water  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  almost  universal  solvent,  there  being  few  sub- 
stances that  are  not  soluble  in  it  to  at  least  a  slight  extent. 
When  water  becomes  charged  with  various  substances  from 
the  soil  and  atmosphere,  its  solvent  powers  greatly  increase, 
and  it  exerts  a  force  in  soil  formation  not  to  be  neglected. 
Water  charged  with  carbon  dioxide  either  from  the  atmos- 
phere or  from  the  decay  of  plants  and  animals,  has  the 
power  of  dissolving  various  rocks. 

Running  Water.  Looking  into  a  stream  of  running 
water,  a  person  can  see,  at  almost  any  time,  grains  of  sand 


84  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

and  rocks  of  various  sizes  sliding  and  rolling  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stream.  These  grind  against  one  another  and 
against  rocks  in  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  stream,  slowly 
but  continually  reducing  the  rocks  to  particles.  The  speed 
with  which  this  result  is  accompUshed  varies  with  the 
volume  of  water  and  the  speed  of  the  current.*  Large, 
swift  streams  are  able  to  carry  large  rocks  and  quickly 
scour  out  their  beds,  whereas  slow  streams  may  carry  sand  or 
only  clay.  All  streams  are  always  transporting  some  sand, 
rock,  or  soil  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  levels.  Some 
natural  barrier  may  act  as  a  retainer  to  the  water,  causing  a 
lake  which  acts  as  a  natural  settUng  basin  for  the  water, 
the  rock  debris  being  deposited  on  the  bottom.  If  this 
process  continues  long  enough,  the  lake  fills  with  soil,  and 
the  water  flows  on  over  the  plain  only  to  continue  its  work 
of  soil  formation  in  some  other  place. 

Lake  Bonneville.  Many  of  our  western  soils  are  formed 
under  just  such  conditions.  At  the  time  of  Lake  Bonne- 
ville the  mountain  rivers  and  small  streams  poured  their 
waters,  loaded  with  the  weatherings  of  the  rock,  gravel, 
sand,  silt,  and  clay  from  the  nearby  mountain  ranges,  into 
the  still  waters  of  the  lake.  The  gravel  and  coarser  material 
deposited  first  in  the  beaches  and  later  the  sand  and  then 
the  silt ;  the  sand  and  the  silt  settled  farther  out  in  the  lake, 
the  clay  reaching  the  middle. 

Many  of  the  best  agricultural  soils  of  the  West  were 
formed  in  this  way,  and  owe  their  great  depth  and  great 
fertility  to  this  method  of  formation. 

Action  of  Waves.  The  wind  often  lashes  the  water  of 
lakes  against  their  shores,  and  in  so  doing  rolls  rocks  up  and 
down  their  beaches.     This  action  together  with  the  various 

*The  carrying  power  of  a  stream  increases  proportional  to  the  sixth 
power  of  the  increase  in  speed  of  the  stream. — i.  e.,  if  a  stream  doubles 
its  velocity,  its  power  to  move  earth  is  not  simply  doubled  but  is  sixty- 
four  times  what  it  was  before. 


SOIL  FORMATION 


85 


suspended  substances  in  the  surf,  slowly  wears  away  the 
rock.  Throughout  the  Great  Basin  the  history  of  the  extinct 
lakes  may  be  read  by  the  wearing  effect  their  waters  had 
upon  the  surrounding  mountains.  Along  all  shore  lines 
considerable  disintegration  takes  place. 


Figure  26. 


-The  action  of  waves  upon  rocks.      Lake  Bonneville  marks  on  moun- 
tains three  or  four  miles  east  of  Garfield  Beach. 


Ice.  In  the  early  geological  periods,  huge  sheets  of  ice 
covered  many  parts  of  North  America.  These  flowed  slowly 
from  the  highlands  into  the  lowlands.  On  their  downward 
journey,  they  froze  around  huge  boulders  which  they  dragged 
slowly  along,  grinding  one  another  and  the  underlying  rock 
into  a  fine  powder.  Rocks  from  the  overhanging  cliffs  were 
caught  up  by  the  surface  of  the  glacier  and  transported  to 
lower  levels.  Ice  probably  took  a  very  insignificant  part 
in  the  soil  formation  of  the  intermountain  region,  although 
in  other  districts  it  has  played  a  very  important  one. 

Plants  as  Soil  Builders.  Even  while  the  rocks  are  appar- 
rently  sound,  some  are  covered  with  lichens  and  mosses. 
These  small  plants  send  their  roots  into  the  minute  crevices 


86  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

of  the  rocks  and  by  means  of  their  root  acids  dissolve  their 
required  mineral  foods  from  the  rock.  The  plants  die  and 
are  replaced  by  others,  their  tissues  being  decomposed  by 
microscopic  plants.  These  bacteria  in  their  activities  form 
acids  which  attack  the  rock  particles;  they  also  obtain  from 
the  atmosphere  their  required  nitrogen;  and,  when  they  die 
and  their  bodies  disintergrate,  they  add  to  the  rock  residues 
a  combined  form  of  the  essential  element,  nitrogen.  These 
are  followed  by  higher  plants,  which  send  their  roots  deep 
into  the  crevices;  as  the  roots  increase  in  diameter  they 
force  the  rocks  apart.  In  this  manner  plants  not  only 
decompose  rocks,  but  they  continually  add  to  the  soil  organic 
matter  which,  when  partly  decayed,  is  known  as  humus, 
imparting  a  black  color  to  the  soil. 

Animals  as  Soil  Builders.  Earthworms,  burrowing  ani- 
mals, and  the  like  are  continually  working  over  the  soil  and 
mixing  organic  matter  with  it.  These,  in  some  regions,  are 
important  factors  in  soil  formation.  At  times  they  are  pres- 
ent in  sufficient  numbers  in  arid  soils  to  interfere  mate- 
rially with  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  though 
they  are  usually  of  small  importance  in  western  soils. 

Soil  and  Native  Rock.  The  native  rock  is  slowly  ground 
into  fine  sand,  which,  when  thoroughly  mixed  with  organic 
matter,  constitutes  the  soil.  It  is  thus  evident  that  there  is 
an  intimate  relationship  between  the  native  rocks  and  the 
soil  resulting  from  them.  In  the  recent  reports  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  are  descriptions  of  phosphate  beds 
throughout  this  western  section  of  the  country;  recently  the 
occurrence  of  potash  deposits  has  been  reported;  and  our 
mountains  abound  in  limestone  rock.  Phosphates  and  pot- 
ash carry  two  of  the  essential  plant  foods,  and  limestone  is 
required  in  order  that  the  soil  remain  a  good  home  for  the 
various  plants.  We  should,  therefore,  expect  to  find,  and 
do  find,  large  amounts  of  these  substances  in  western  soils, 
which  are  largely,  therefore,  intensely  productive. 


SOIL  FORMATION  87 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  soil?     From  what  is  it  made? 

2.  Name  the  forces  that  cause  rock-weathering. 

3.  How  does  change  of  temperature  disintegrate  rock? 

4.  In  what  ways  does  wind  wear  rock  away? 

5.  How  does  oxygen  affect  rock? 

6.  How  does  the  action  of  water  by  solution  differ  from  that  of 

running  water? 

7.  Locate  and  describe  Lakes  Lahontan  and  Bonneville. 

8.  How  were  soils  affected  by  these  lakes? 

9.  In  what  way  are  plants  and  animals  soil  builders? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 
L     Go  for  a  trip  along  a  stream.     Note  that  the  rocks  are  decaying 
and  that  the  streams  are  transporting  soil.     If  possible,  learn 
how  the  soils  were  deposited  in  the  present  place. 

2.  Break  off  a  small  chip  from  some  soft  rock,  such  as  sandstone  or 

limestone,  and  examine  carefully  the  sides  and  edges  of  the 
same.  Place  it  in  a  bottle  with  water  and  shake  violently  for 
a  few  minutes.  Draw  off  the  water  and  examine  the  rock. 
What  has  taken  place? 

3.  Weigh  a  quart  fruit  jar  and  then  fill  with  very  muddy  water. 

Allow  the  bottle  and  contents  to  stand  undisturbed  over  night. 
If  it  has  not  settled  during  the  night,  add  to  it  a  few  cubic  centi- 
meters of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  or  a  piece  of  lime  and 
allow  to  stand  until  clear.  Decant  off  the  clear  water.  Dry 
and  weigh  the  bottle  with  the  sediment.  Calculate  the  percent- 
age of  soil  in  the  water. 

4.  Map  the  area  in  which  you  live,  to  show  kinds  of  soils. 

REFERENCES 
Textbooks  of  geology,  physiography,  and  geography. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin  and  Buckman. 
Soils,  Hilgard. 
The  Soil,  King. 
Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 
Origin  and  Nature  of  Soils,  Shaler.     Part  I.  Twelfth  Report  of 

the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slyke. 
Soils,  Fletcher. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SOIL  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE 

Soil  Tjrpes.  Soils  are  variously  classified.  One  classi- 
fication is:  (1)  residual  soils,  (2)  colluvial  soils,  and  (3) 
alluvial  soils.  Residual  soils  are  formed  by  the  weathering 
of  the  parent  rock  which  may  be  found  at  varying  depths 
underlying  the  soil.  They  are  commonly  found  in  high 
plateaus,  such  as  the  Colorado  plateau,  extending  through- 
out much  of  southern  Utah  and  western  Colorado.  Collu- 
vial soils  are  those  which  have  been  moved  some  distance 
from  their  place  of  formation  as  a  result  of  rolling  downhill 
or  being  moved  by  the  action  of  wind  or  rain.  Alluvial  soil 
is  the  material  deposited  from  running  streams.  Soil  formed 
in  this  way  fills  the  low-lying  valleys  of  the  intermountain 
country,  deposited  by  the  mountain  streams.  The  well- 
formed  deltas  at  the  mouths  of  the  mountain  canyons  are 
common  illustrations. 

There  are  also  other  ways  of  classifying  soils.  For 
example,  they  may  be  classified  as  (1)  sand,  (2)  sandy  loam, 
(3)  loam,  (4)  clay  loam,  (5)  clay,  and  (6)  peat,  depending 
upon  the  physical  composition  of  the  soil,  i.  e.,  the  arrange- 
ment and  varying  quantities  of  the  several  sizes  and  kinds 
of  particles. 

Soil  Texture.  The  arrangement  of  these  soil  particles  in 
the  soil  in  varying  quantities  gives  rise  to  the  several  kinds  of 
soil  as  indicated  above.  The  term  soil  texture  refers  to  the 
soil  type.  Just  as  we  speak  of  cloth  as  having  a  fine  or 
coarse  texture,  so  we  may  speak  of  soil  as  having  fine  or 
coarse  texture,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  individual 
grains.    The  texture  of  the  soil  particles  depends  upon  the 

88 


SOIL  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE 


89 


varying   quantities  of   sand,   silt,    and   clay   in  the  soil  as 
indicated  below  in  Tables  III  and  IV. 

In  the  Juab  county  soil  there  are  a  greater  number  of  the 
smaller  grains,  such  as  clay,  and  fine  and  medium  silt, 
which  compose  a  somewhat  compact  clay  loam.     With  the 


Table  m.- 

-Juab  County  Farm. 

Depth  in  feet 

1st 

2nd 

3rd 

4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

9th 

lOth 

Medium  sand 
Fine  sand .  .  . 
Coarse  silt. . . 
Medium  silt . 

Fine  silt 

Fine  clay 

8.93 
20.05 
21.97 
15.23 
13.25 
15.73 

8.99 

16.48 
19.95 
16.78 
14.88 
16.68 

8.73 
12.38 
22.53 
17.53 
14.47 
18.62 

11.36 
18.87 
19.06 
17.25 
8.93 
20.68 

15.69 
19.48 
23.88 
15.43 
8.01 
12.41 

8.93 
27.40 
22.27 
13.51 

7.11 
10.03 

16.28 
25.00 
21.88 
13.73 
8.68 
12.19 

12.60 
22.52 
21.91 
17.03 
9.74 
13.29 

23.57 
26.09 
19.25 
10.04 
6.56 
20.95 

15.48 
21.45 
18.63 
15.77 
11.71 
13.36 

Table  IV. — San  Juan  County  Farm. 


Depth  in  feet 


Medium  sand 
Fine  sand .  . 
Coarse  silt. . 
Medium  silt 

Fine  silt 

Fine  clay. . . 


1st       2nd 


11.07 

50.21 

12.80 

8.18 

5.47 

9.77 


13.54 
45.21 
11.40 
7.94 
6.27 
11.10 


3rd       4th       5th       6th 


12.45 

46.10 

16.78 

9.22 

5.26 

5.64 


13.80 

45.38 

13.58 

9.72 

5.51 

9.92 


13.31 
32.39 
16.50 
14.37 
9.14 
12.02 


7th       8th       9th       10th 


18.34 
36.43 
13.87 
19.03 
9.19 
14.94 


9.57 

40.48 

16.55 

9.46 

7.39 

12.33 


10.19 
42.29 
15.71 
8.55 
6.41 
13.84 


San  Juan  county  soil,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  greater 
number  of  the  medium  and  fine  sand  particles,  composing 
a  coarse-grained,  sandy  soil.  The  latter  soil  is  easier  to 
cultivate;  the  plow  enters  the  soil  easily  and  scours  readily. 
As  the  soil  becomes  heavier,  i.  e.,  contains  a  greater  number 
of  the  finer  particles,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  prepare 
the  seed  bed  when  the  soil  is  in  the  proper  condition — when 
it  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  The  farmer  speaks  of  the 
sandy  soil  as  a  light  soil,  while  clay  is  called  a  heavy  soil, 
although  sand  weighs  more  than  clay. 

The  texture  of  a  given  soil  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon 
the  parent  rock  out  of  which  the  soil  was  originally  formed. 
The  weathering  of  sandstone  results  in  a  sandy  soil  of  coarse 


90  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

texture.  The  weathering  of  shale,  on  the  other  hand,  makes 
a  heavy  clay  soil  of  fine  texture.  In  the  arid  West  many  of 
the  soils  are  derived  from  the  intermixture  of  several  kinds 
of  weathered  rock,  producing  soils  of  all  degrees  of  texture. 
Soil  Structure.    The  soil  must  be  well  suppHed  with 


Figure  27. — Good  deep  soil. 

plant  food,  but  this  fact  does  not  relieve  the  farmer  of  the 
necessity  of  getting  his  soil  into  proper  physical  condition 
which  greatly  influences  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  the 
food  supply,  the  penetration  of  the  plant  roots,  and  the 
circulation  of  soil  air  necessary  to  the  bacterial  life  of  the 
soil.  This  physical  condition  is  structure;  it  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  size  of  the  particles. 

How  to  Modify  Soil  Structures.  The  rock  particles  in 
the  soil  are  still  subject  to  the  same  weathering  influences 
by  which  they  were  formed  and  are  by  them  being  continu- 
ally changed  in  texture  to  a  slight  extent.  The  farmer  has 
little  control  over  the  texture  of  the  soil.  Sandy  soil 
remains  sandy;  clay  soil  remains  clay.     Much,  however,  may 


SOIL  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE 


91 


be  done  to  modify  the  structure  so  as  to  increase  its  crop- 
producing  power.  The  structure  may  be  modified  by  plow- 
ing or  cultivating  at  the  proper  time.  If  the  soil  is  plowed 
or  cultivated  when  too  wet,  the  heavier  clay  soil  has  a 


Figure  28. — This  picture  was  taken  a  few  days  after  a  heavy  rain,  previous  to  which 
there  had  been  thorough  cultivation.  Note  the  baking  and  cracks  resulting 
from  a  lack  of  proper  physical  condition. 


tendency  to  puddle,  or  break  into  a  hard  impervious  mass 
unsuited  for  crop  production. 

Fall  plowing  gives  the  weathering  agencies,  such  as  frost 
and  water,  a  better  chance  to  penetrate  the  soil  and  thus 
render  possible  the  preparation  of  a  good  seed  bed.  The 
presence  of  water-soluble  salts  also  materially  modifies  the 
structure  of  the  soil.  Thus  it  is  somewhat  common  in  the 
arid  West  to  have  very  coarse-textured  soil,  similar  to  sand, 
consisting  mostly  of  limestone  particles  cemented  together 
by  the  water-soluble  salts.  Some  of  the  alkali  salts,  such  as 
sodium  carbonate,  or  black  alkali,  cause  the  soil  particles  to 
run  together,  forming  a  hard,  impervious  mass  which  can  best 
be  destroyed  by  the  addition  of  gypsum. 


92 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


An  acid  soil  may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  ordi- 
nary limestone.  Many  soils  have  a  tendency  to  run  together 
when  deficient  in  organic  matter.  This  fault  may  be  rem- 
edied by  addition  of 
barnyard  manure  or 
by  plowing  under  of 
plant  residues  or 
green  manure.  The 
soil  texture  may  be 
modified  by  thor- 
ough, continued  cul- 
tivation, such  as  is 
carried  on  in  the 
production  of  the 
mulch  in  dry-farming 
operations. 

Baking  of  Soils. 
Some  soils,  on  ac- 
count of  a  deficiency 
in  organic  matter 
and  Hmestone,  have 
a  tendency  to  bake, 
i.  e.,  become  hard  and 
compact.  Although 
our  arid  soils  are  not 
rich  in  organic  mat- 
ter, they  are  exceptionally  rich  in  limestone  and,  as  a  result, 
baking  of  soils  is  not  common  with  them.  Black  alkali  soils 
have  a  tendency  to  bake,  but  this  may  be  readily  overcome 
by  the  addition  of  gypsum.  If  the  baking  of  a  soil  is  caused 
by  the  absence  of  humus,  provision  should  be  made  for  the 
addition  of  barnyard  manure  or  for  the  plowing  under  of 
green  manure,  such  as  a  crop  of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpeas. 
Soil  and  Subsoil.  In  a  humid  section  the  native  plant 
roots  penetrate  into  the  soil  to  a  uniform  depth  of  twenty  to 


Figure  29. — Soil  and  subsoil. 


SOIL  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE 


93 


twenty-four  inches,  and,  when  they  decay,  there  is  a  char- 
acteristic change  in  color  below  this  point.  The  under  part 
is  called  subsoil.  The  surface  soil  is  dark  colored,  while  the 
subsoil  is  light  in  color.     No  such  change  in  color  is  noticed 

in  soils  of  the  arid 
region,  because  our 
native  plant  roots 
penetrate  to  much 
greater  depths. 
This  penetration  of 
the  plant  roots  is 
made  necessary  by 
their  search  for 
moisture  and  possi- 
ble by  the  almost 
uniform  texture 
and  structure  of  the 
arid  soils  to  consid- 
erable depth,  as  in- 
dicated in  the  above 
table.  This  uni- 
formity renders 
possible  deeper 
plowing  in  the  arid 
region  than  in  a  humid  section  where  the  turning  up  of  the 
subsoil  renders  the  soil  nonproductive. 

Influence  of  Moisture  Content.  The  moisture  content 
of  the  soil  is  frequently  the  limiting  factor  of  crop  production 
in  the  arid  regions.  The  amount  of  water  retained  in  the 
soil  is  dependent  in  a  large  degree  upon  the  soil  texture.  A 
fine-textured  soil  is  capable  of  retaining  more  moisture  than 
is  a  coarse-textured  one,  on  account  of  the  greater  surface 
exposure;  but  a  soil  of  too  fine  texture  is  not  desirable,  since 
the  circulation  of  the  soil  air  and  the  free  penetration  of  the 
plant  roots  would  be  impeded. 


Figure  30. — Root  system  of  alsike  clover  plant,  show- 
ing immense  growth  of  roots  which  are  so  beneficial 
in  enrichment  of  soil  by  the  clover  crop. 


94  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Productivity  of  the  Soil.  The  proper  physical  condition 
of  the  soil  is  of  prime  importance.  It  is  essential  to  have  a 
soil  rich  in  plant  food,  but  this  alone  will  not  insure  crops. 
A  soil  having  the  proper  physical  condition  holds  more 
moisture  and  is  better  able  to  receive  and  to  give  it  up  to 
plants.  Such  a  soil  is  suitable  to  the  important  bacterial 
processes  that  convert  the  plant  food  into  a  condition  suit- 
able for  assimilation  by  plants.  It  permits  the  free  circu- 
lation of  the  soil  air  and  thus  assists  in  putting  the  soil; 
the  home  of  the  plant,  into  a  better  sanitary  condition. 

QUESTIONS  ^^^  if^ 

1.  Classify  soils. 

2.  What  is  a  soil  type?     Name  the  types. 

3.  What  is  soil  texture?     Texture? 

4.  How  may  they  be  modified? 

5.  How  may  baking  be  controlled? 

6.  What  is  subsoil?     State  its  importance. 

7.  What  makes  a  soil  fertile? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  various  kinds  of  soil.    Put  in  bottles,  label  and  preserve. 

2.  Wet  some  heavy  soil — clay  or  clay  loam.     To  some  add  fine 

manure;  to  some,  lime;  to  some,  sand;  and  to  some,  nothing. 
Set  to  dry.     Note  results. 

REFERENCES 

Soils,  Hilgard. 

The  Physics  of  Agriculture,  King. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 
Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slyke. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PLANT  FOOD  IN  SOILS 

Food  Supply.  The  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  of 
great  importance  in  crop  production;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  plant,  hke  the  animal,  must  be  furnished 
with  a  food  supply.  The  animal  needs  not  only  sufficient 
food,  but  a  variety  of  food  in  order  that  it  may  thrive. 
Likewise,  there  are  certain  substances  which  all  plants  must 
have  in  order  that  they  may  grow  normally  and  reproduce 
their  kind.  The  plant  secures  its  foods  from  three  sources : 
(1)  the  water,  (2)  the  air,  and  (3)  the  soil.  Most  plants  are 
largely  water,  from  70  to  90  per  cent.  Thus  76  per  cent  of 
'the  sugar  beet  is  water,  and  4.75  per  cent  is  ash,  the 
remainder  consisting  of  carbohydrates  and  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter. In  a  consideration  of  the  plant  food,  it  must  be  kept 
clearly  in  mind  that  there  are  ten  elements  which  are  abso- 
lutely essential  to  plant  growth.  These  substances  are  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  and  sulphur. 

Carbon  is  an  essential  substance  in  all  organic  matter. 
Starch,  for  example,  which  is  a  common  vegetable  product, 
contains  44  per  cent  of  carbon,  which  is  obtained  by  the 
plant  through  its  leaves  from  the  air.  When  food  is  eaten 
by  animals,  this  carbon  is  used  in  the  various  animal  pro- 
cesses, and  one  of  its  decomposition  products  is  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which  is  thrown  off  by  the  animal  into  the  atmo- 
sphere. This  substance  is  of  no  use  to  animals,  but  is  of 
very  great  importance  to  the  plant,  which  utilizes  it  in 
building  up  much  of  its  tissue.  The  conversion  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  into  the  compounds  which  are  found  in  the 
plant  takes  place  in  its  leaves  in  the  presence  of  the  green 

95 


96  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

coloring  matter  of  the  leaf,  the  so-called  leaf-green,  or  chlo- 
rophyll. It  is  also  necessary  that  a  certain  amount  of  heat 
and  light  be  furnished  in  order  that  this  process  of  fixation 
of  carbon  may  take  place.  This  process  is  spoken  of  as 
photosynthesis. 

Hydrogen  and  Oxygen.  Water  is  composed  of  two 
elements,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  As  we  have  already  noted, 
from  70  to  90  per  cent  of  the  plant  consists  of  water.  These 
two  elements,  therefore,  in  combination,  serve  as  a  very 
important  part  of  the  food  of  plants;  but,  in  addition  to  their 
use  in  the  form  of  water,  they  also  serve  other  highly  important 
functions.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen,  for  example,  are  neces- 
sary in  the  formation  of  starch  and  other  plant  products. 
Starch  consists  of  44  per  cent  of  carbon,  the  other  56  per 
cent  being  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  hydrogen  in  the 
starch,  of  course,  comes  originally  from  the  water.  Oxygen 
may  be  obtained  by  the  plant  either  from  the  atmosphere  or 
from  water.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  important  also  in 
the  formation   of  many  other  plant  organs  and  products. 

Nitrogen  is  also  an  essential  plant  food.  It  forms  a"  part 
of  protoplasm  which  is  found  in  all  living  matter.  Without 
nitrogen  there  could  be  no  life  of  any  kind.  This  important 
plant  food  is  deficient  in  many  of  our  soils.  It  is  absorbed 
by  the  plant  through  the  roots  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of 
combined  nitrogen,  principally  as  nitrates.  The  conditions 
in  the  soil  that  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  these 
nitrates  are,  therefore,  very  important.  The  lack  of 
nitrogen  in  the  soil  results  in  a  reduction  of  the  leaf  surface 
of  the  plant  and  in  a  stunting  of  the  stem  growth.  It 
results  in  the  early  flowering  of  the  plant  and  an  attempt  to 
reproduce  seed,  in  much  the  same  way  that  a  deficiency  of 
water  would  act  upon  the  plant.  An  excessive  amount  of 
nitrogen  results  in  a  weakened  condition  of  the  plant  and 
renders  it  less  resistant  to  the  inroads  of  plant  diseases  and 
insect  pests. 


PLANT  FOOD  IN  SOILS  97 

Phosphorus,  another  important  food  element,  is  found 
in  all  living  matter.  Without  it,  new  cells  cannot  be  pro- 
duced. Therefore,  growth  cannot  take  place  in  the  absence 
of  this  substance.  In  addition,  it  seems  that  phosphorus  is 
necessary  for  the  production  of  leaf -green,  or  chlorophyll, 
the  presence  of  which  is  so  necessary  for  the  proper  utiliza- 
tion of  the  carbon  as  a  food  of  the  plant.  In  the  absence 
of  phosphorus,  neither  sugar  nor  starch  is  formed  in  the 
leaf  of  the  plant,  growth  ceases,  and  the  leaves  turn  yellow. 
It  is  used  by  all  plants  in  large  quantities  and  has  a  ten- 
dency to  concentrate  in  the  seeds  of  plants,  the  more  salable 
products  of  the  farm.  Phosphorus  is  very  deficient  in  most 
of  our  soils;  hence,  with  injudicious  methods  of  farming,  there 
is  a  tendency  to  exhaust  this  plant  food  by  selling  it  as  grain 
from  the  farm.  The  farmer  should,  therefore,  consider 
means  of  conserving  this  element.  Phosphorus  is  the  limit- 
ing factor  of  crop  production  in  many  soils  in  America. 

Calcium.  In  the  absence  of  calcium,  there  is  the  failure 
of  the  normal  production  of  leaf -green,  or  chlorophyll;  the 
leaves  turn  yellow  and  starch  is  not  converted  into  sugar. 
It  seems  that  the  ferments  which  cause  this  conversion  into 
sugar  are  not  produced  in  the  absence  of  calcium.  In  addi- 
tion, calcium  probably  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the 
neutralization  of  acids  in  the  plant  juices.  It  is  essential 
for  the  production  of  the  nucleus  and  the  chlorophyll  bodies. 

Many  soils  are  deficient  in  calcium,  and,  as  a  result,  are 
acidic,  or  sour.  Before  they  can  be  raised  to  normal  pro- 
ductivity, such  soils  must  be  corrected  with  limestone,  which 
is  the  cheapest  form  in  which  calcium  may  be  obtained.  It 
is  of  special  importance  in  the  soil,  since  it  favors  the  pro^ 
cess  called  nitrification,  that  is,  the  process  by  which  nitrates 
are  produced  in  the  soil.  These  nitrates,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  needed  to  furnish  the  plant  with  its  supply  of  nitrogen. 

Magnesium.  The  plant  seems  to  develop  normally  in 
the  absence  of  magnesium  until  it  attempts  to  produce  seeds; 

7— 


98  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

but,  if  magnesium  is  then  absent,  the  flowers  may  not  form, 
or,  if  they  do  form,  the  fruit  is  not  set.  Thus,  a  very  small 
amount  may  be  all  that  is  necessary  until  the  time  of  flower- 
ing, when  large  demands  are  made  for  this  substance. 
Although  magnesium  is  an  essential  plant  food,  if  it  be  present 
in  the  soil  in  too  large  quantities,  especially  in  the  absence 
of  calcium,  it  acts  as  a  poison.  Calcium  seems  to  offset  this 
poisonous  action  of  magnesium.  In  addition,  it  occurs  in 
some  soils  in  the  form  of  magnesium  sulphate  (Epsom  salts), 
a  water-soluble  substance,  and  as  such  is  one  of  the  more 
common  alkalies. 

Potassium,  or  potash,  is  a  substance  which  occurs  in  the 
ash  of  plants  in  large  quantities.  The  pioneers  of  the  inter- 
mountain  West  made  use  of  the  ash  of  plants  in  their  soap 
making,  the  potassium  occurring  in  the  ash  in  such  large 
quantities  that  it  could  be  leached  out  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  demanded  by  all  plants  in  large  quantities  and  especially 
by  such  plants  as  the  sugar  beet.  In  the  absence  of  potas- 
sium, there  is  a  cessation  of  growth.  The  plants  seem  to 
have  a  normal  green  color,  but  no  starch  or  nitrogenous 
material  is  formed.  Potassium,  therefore,  seems  to  play 
some  part  in  the  formation  of  starch,  sugars,  and  nitro- 
genous compounds.  The  presence  of  potassium  in  the  plant 
also  seems  to  hasten  and  perfect  its  maturing  and  to  assist 
it  in  a  better  utilization  of  moisture,  which,  as  we  know,  is 
the  limiting  factor  of  crop  production  in  the  West.  Potas- 
sium in  the  soil  seems  to  help  also  in  the  retaining  of  mois- 
ture.    Clay  loams  are  usually  rich  in  this  element. 

Iron,  though  demanded  by  all  plants  in  very  small 
amounts,  is  essential  in  some  way  in  the  production  of  leaf- 
green,  although  not  present  in  this  compound.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  iron,  leaf-green  is  not  produced.  The  red  coloring 
matter  of  blood  contains  iron.  It  occurs  in  the  soil  in  such 
large  quantities  and  is  utilized  by  all  plants  in  such  small 
amounts  that  its  supply  will  never  become  exhausted. 


PLANT  FOOD  IN  SOILS  99 

Sulphur  occurs  as  an  essential  constituent  of  many  of  the 
plant  compounds.  In  some  of  its  combinations  it  gives  to 
such  substances  as  onions  and  garlic  their  characteristic 
odor  and  taste.  It  is  present  in  horse-radish  and  mustard 
oils,  and  is  an  essential  constituent  of  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant nitrogenous  compounds  found  in  plants. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  plants,  like  animals,  need  food,  and, 
like  animals,  they  need  a  variety  of  food  in  order  that  they 
may  thrive  and  reproduce  a  good  yield  of  their  kind.  As 
Loew  has  aptly  said,  "Every  plant  absolutely  requires  a 
certain  minimum  of  each  mineral  nutrient,  and,  in  most 
cases,  besides  this  minimum,  it  takes  up  not  only  an  excess 
of  these  various  compounds,  but  also  substances  which  are 
perhaps  useful  but  not  absolutely  necessary  for  plant  func- 
tions, such  as  sodium  and  silica." 

Summary.  The  plant  foods  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  depending  upon  their  relative  abundance  and  eco- 
nomic value.  The  first  class  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen.  The  carbon  supply  in  the  air  is  automatically 
maintained  by  the  carbonic  acid  gas  thrown  off  from  the 
lungs  of  animals.  Hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  obtained  by 
the  plant  from  the  water  of  the  soil,  which  is  maintained  in 
our  soils  by  the  rain  and  snow  and  is  returned  to  the  soil  by 
the  principles  of  dry-farming  and  by  the  application  of  irri- 
gation water. 

The  second  group  includes  calcium,  magnesium,  iron  and 
sulphur,  which  are  used  by  all  plants  in  such  small  quanti- 
ties and  of  which  so  much  exists  in  our  soils  that  their  supply 
will  neyer  become  consumed,  consequently  they  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  added  to  the  soil  as  plant  foods. 

The  third  group  consists  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium  which  are  used  by  all  plants  in  large  quantities, 
and  which  exist  so  scantily  in  the  soil  that  they  may  be 
easily  exhausted.  These  substances,  therefore,  have  great 
economic  value;  they  are  the  essential  constituents  of  the 


100  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

commercial  fertilizers  placed  upon  the  market.  The  Ameri- 
can farmers  spend  about  $100,000,000  annually  for  the 
purchase  of  these  three  plant  foods. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  sources  of  plant  food. 

2.  Name  the  elements  essential  to  plant  growth. 

3.  State  the  use  of  each  in  the  plant. 

4.  Give  the  approximate  proportion  of  each  found  in  plants. 

5.  Which  of  these  are  most  likely  to  be  lacking? 

6.  How  may  these  deficiencies  be  made  good?  • 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Place  a  piece  of  filter  paper  in  a  large  funnel.     On  this  place  a 

double  handful  of  soil.  Pour  about  a  quart  of  water  over  this 
slowly  in  such  a  way  as  to  wet  the  soil  thoroughly.  Catch  what 
water  passes  through.     Evaporate  this.     Explain  results. 

2.  Place  a  smgle  handful  of  loam  soil  in  porcelain  or  metal  vessel. 

Heat  strongly  until  the  soil  "burns."     Explain. 

REFERENCES 

Plant  Physiology,  Duggar. 

Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  Hopkins. 

Soils,  Hilgard. 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 

The  Soil,  King. 

Manures.  Thorne. 

Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slykc. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FERTILE  SOILS 

Factors  of  Crop  Production.  In  the  consideration  of  soil 
fertility  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  are  six  positive 
factors  of  crop  production:  (1)  the  seed,  (2)  the  home  of  the 
plant,  (3)  heat,  (4)  light,  (5)  moisture,  and  (6)  plant  food. 
For  best  results  no  one  of  these  six  factors  can  be  ignored. 
Each  one  is  equally  important.  Some  of  them,  however, 
are  under  better  control  of  the  farmer  than  others.  Thus, 
the  farmer  has  very  little  control  over  the  light  factor. 
Fortunately,  however,  the  amount  of  light  falling  upon  an 
acre  of  soil  is  sufficient  for  the  production  of  many  times  the 
average  yield  of  crops  now  obtained.  The  heat  factor  may 
be  controlled  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  farmer  in  securing  a 
proper  structure  of  his  soil  through  the  addition  of  organic 
matter,  and  by  underdrainage.  The  home  of  the  plant  may 
also  be  kept  in  a  more  sanitary  condition  by  the  use  of  lime- 
stone and  proper  cultivation.  Considerable  has  been  done  in 
recent  years  in  the  selection  of  better  seed.  In  the  arid 
West  it  is  important  that  the  soil  moisture  be  conserved 
through  the  practice  of  the  principles  of  dry-farming  and 
irrigation.  In  the  irrigated  districts  the  moisture  factor  is 
under  better  control  than  in  the  humid  districts.  The  last, 
or  food  factor,  is  the  one  that  is  under  best  control. 

Virgin  Soils  Fertile.  A  virgin  soil  when  first  turned  by 
the  plow  is  in  a  state  of  high  fertility,  that  is,  its  crop-pro- 
ducing power  for  cultivated  crops  is  at  a  maximum.  Since 
such  a  soil  has  been  producing  native  crops  for  indefinite 
periods  of  time,  why  is  it  that  its  power  to  produce  culti- 
vated crops  gradually  decreases?  As  soon  as  the  soil  is 
formed  by  the  weathering  of  the  rock  particles,  microscopic 

101 


102  ■  IVFSTFltN'  AGRICULTURE 

plants  begin  to  grow  upon  the  rock  powder.  These  micro- 
scopic plants  gradually  give  way  to  plants  of  a  higher  order. 
When  the  plants  decay,  their  remains  are  added  to  the  soil, 
and  are  incorporated  with  it.  This  process  results  in  the 
production  of  a  soil  containing  organic,  or  vegetable,  matter 
from  which  none  of  the  inorganic  matter,  or  rock  material, 
has  been  permanently  removed.  Thus,  when  nature  pro- 
duces plants  in  native  condition,  there  is  no  inorganic  plant 
food  removed  from  the  soil  and,  in  addition,  there  is  con- 
siderable organic  material  produced  largely  from  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  of  the  atmosphere  which  is  added  to  the  soil 
on  the  death  of  the  plant.  In  like  manner  the  decay  of  the 
native  vegetation  and  the  accumulation  of  leaves  in  forests 
produce  a  soil  of  high  fertility. 

Crop  Requirements.  When  the  virgin  soil  is  long  culti- 
vated by  man,  these  conditions  are  changed.  Practically  all 
the  crop  is  removed  from  the  soil;  organic  matter  is  not 
added  to  the  soil;  and,  besides,  much  of  the  inorganic  plant 
food  is  removed  by  the  crop. 

The  two  most  important  plant  foods  are  nitrogen  and 
phosphorus,  since  they  are  the  ones  that  are  likely  to  be 
deficient  in  the  soil  and  are  the  ones  which  have  a  market 
value  and  are  the  important  constituents  of  commercial 
fertilizers.  The  crop  requirements  of  the  wheat,  potato, 
and  sugar  beet  plants  for  these  substances  are  recorded 
in  Table  V.  On  the  removal  of  the  cultivated  crops,  such  as 
wheat,  potatoes,  and  sugar  beets  considerable  amounts  of 
these  plant  foods  are  taken  out  of  the  soil.  Values  of  the 
plant  foods  removed  with  the  crops  are  computed  at  the 
normal  prices  for  which  the  elements  may  be  purchiused  on  the 
markets:  nitrogen,  fifteen  cents  a  ix)un(l;  phosphorus,  three 
cents;  and  potassium,  six  ctMits. 

It  is  important  to  not(»  from  the  following  table  that  the 
phosphorus  is  concentrated  in  the  grain,  and,  therefore, 
in  the  most  salable  products  of  the  farm.     When  the  wheat 


FERTILE  SOILS 


103 


is  sold  from  tlic  fciriii,  phosphorus  is  removed  in  larjjje  (luaii- 
tities.  In  grain  crops  such  as  wheat,  two  thirds  of  the  nitro- 
gen, three  fourths  of  the  phosphorus,  and  one  fourth  of 
the  potassium  are  found  in  the  seed.  If  the  grain  is  sold, 
these  amounts  are  lost  to  the  farmer;  if  the  grain  be  fed  to 
live  stock  on  the  farm,  one  fourth  of  the  nitrogen,  one 
fourth  of  the  phosphorus,  and  very  little  of  the  potassium 
are  retained  by  the  animal.  That  is,  three  fourths  of  the 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus  may,  with  care,  be  returned  to 
the  soil.     There  is,  then,  a  constant  loss  of  these  essential 

Table  V. — Crop  Requirements 


Product 

Pounds 

Market  Value 

Kind 

Amount 

1 

2 

CD 

3 
O 

& 
O 

s 

.2 
1 

c 
m 

o 

is 

2 

o 

X3 

a 

3 

'i 

a 

3 
> 

2 

Wheat 

Wheat  straw 
Wheat  crop . 

50  Bu. 

2HT. 

71 

25 

96 

100 

100 

12 

4 

16 

13 

18 

13 

45 

58 

90 

157 

$10.65 
3.75 

14.40 
9.45 

15.00 

$00.36 
.12 

.48 
.39 
.54 

$0.78 
2.70 
3.48 
5.40 
9.42 

$11.79 

6.57 

18.36 

Potatoes 

Sugar  beets . 

300  Bu. 
20  T. 

15.23 
24.96 

plant  foods  from  the  farm.  It  would  seem  to  be  clearly 
indicated  that  in  order  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  fertile  con- 
dition we  must  do  as  nature  has  done — make  provisions 
for  the  addition  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil  and  for 
the  return  to  the  soil  of  those  plant  foods  which  have 
been  removed. 

Value  of  Rotation.  In  a  permanent  system  of  agricul- 
ture, it  is  necessary  to  practice  a  system  of  crop  rotation. 
It  must  not  be  assumed,  however,  that  a  crop  rotation  alone 
will  maintain  the  crop-producing  power  of  the  soil.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  how  such  a  system  will  add  to  the 
soil  those  plant  foods,  with  the  exception  of  nitrogen,  which 
have  been  removed.  There  is  a  number  of  reasons  why  a 
crop  rotation  should  be  practiced.     Probably  the  six  most 


104  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

important  are  the  following:  (1)  elimination  of  weeds,  such, 
for  example,  as  the  elimination  of  June  grass  from  the  al- 
falfa fields  in  tlie  intermountain  region;  (2)  the  better  con- 
trol of  insect  pests;  (3)  use  of  a  legume  in  order  that  the 
farnier  may  employ  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air;  (4)  the 
introduction  of  the  deep  root  crops,  such  as  the  alfalfa 
plant,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  best  subsoiler  we  have; 
(5)  the  varying  demands  of  different  crops  upon  the  plant 
food  supply.  Thus,  a  maximum  corn  crop  would  remove 
nineteen  pounds  of  potassium,  while  a  corresponding  sugar 
beet  crop  would  remove  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  pounds. 
The  alternation  of  such  crops,  therefore,  would  give  a  better 
chance  for  the  liberation  of  this  element  from  its  insoluble 
compounds  in  the  soil.  A  final  reason  is  (6)  an  economical 
consideration,  in  that  such  a  system  provides  for  better  uti- 
lization of  machinery,  labor,  and  irrigation  water. 

Barnyard  Mantire.  Since  rotations  alone  can  not  keep 
up  the  fertility,  some  fertilizing  substance  must  be  added. 
Barnyard  manure  is  undoubtedly  the  best  fertilizing  material 
available  for  the  farm.  The  value  of  the  manure  produced 
on  the  farms  of  America  is  estimated  at  two  and  one  third 
billions  of  dollars,  and  yet  one  third  of  this  amount  or 
$800,000,000  worth,  is,  each  year,  wilfully  wasted  on  the 
farms.  The  manure  is  valuable  from  a  physical,  bacter- 
iological, and  chemical  point  of  view.  It  assists  in  convert- 
ing the  soil  into  a  better  physical  condition,  so  that  the  soil 
retains  and  delivers  the  moisture  to  the  plant  in  times  of 
drought  better  than  soil  not  manured.  At  the  Rotham- 
sted  Station  in  England  one  plot  has  been  treated  with 
barnyard  manure  at  the  rate  of  15.7  tons  an  acre  yearly. 
Another  plot  has  received  mineral  plant  foods  in  about 
the  same  proportion  as  contained  in  the  manure.  The 
average  yield  of  wheat  on  unfertilized  land  was  12.9  bushels, 
while  that  on  the  plot  receiving  mineral  plant  food  was 
27.1  bushels,  as  opposed  to  35.5  bushels  for  the  plot  receiv- 


FERTILE  SOILS  105 

ing  barnyard  manure.  These  results  are  the  average  of 
fifty-five  years  and  are,  therefore,  trustworthy  and  relia- 
ble and  indicate  quite  clearly  the  crop-producing  power 
of  barnyard  manure.  These  results  also  show  that  min- 
eral plant  food  can  maintain  the  crop-producing  power  of 
the  soil. 

The  years  1893  and  1903  were  abnormal  years,  the 
former  being  extremely  dry,  and  the  latter  was  very  wet. 
The  results  obtained  these  years  are  indicated  below  in 
Table  VI. 


Table  VI.— Yield  of  Wheat 

m  Bushels  an  Acre.    (Rothamsted.) 

Unfertilized 

Farm  Manure 

Mineral  Plant  Food 

1893  Dry  Year.. 
1903  Wet  Year.. 

9.8 

7.6 

34.3 
29.7 

21.8 
35.8 

The  results  clearly  indicate  that,  though  in  normal  years 
mineral  plant  food  is  fully  as  valuable  as  the  manure,  dur- 
ing an  extremely  dry  year  the  barnyard  manure  gave  the 
best  results,  on  account,  no  doubt,  of  the  great  power  of 
soil  so  treated  to  retain  and  deliver  moisture  to  the  plant. 
The  manure  is  valuable  for  its  plant  food  content  also.  A 
ton  of  barnyard  manure  contains  ten  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
two  of  phosphorus,  and  ten  of  potassium,  which  at  the 
average  market  price  of  these  elements,  fifteen  cents  per 
pound  for  nitrogen,  six  cents  per  pound  for  potassium  and 
twelve  cents  for  phosphorus,  makes  a  ton  of  barnyard  ma- 
nure worth  $2.34.  The  manure  also  supplies  abundant  food 
and  energy  for  the  bacteria  of  the  soil.  The  decomposition 
of  the  organic  matter  brought  about  by  bacterial  action 
produces  a  number  of  organic  acids  which  assist  materially 
in  rendering  plant  food  available. 

Green  Manuring.  Since  the  quantity  of  barnyard  ma- 
nure is  limited,  some  substitute  for  its  organic  matter  must 
be  found.     This  end  is  accomplished  by  growing  a  crop  for 


106  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

the  express  purpose  of  plowing  it  under  while  it  is  still  green. 
Thus,  in  some  sections  of  the  country,  the  clover  crop  is 
grown  in  a  rotation  and  plowed  under.  Such  a  crop  ser\^es 
as  food  for  soil  bacteria  and  readily  undergoes  decomposi- 
tion with  the  production  of  the  organic  acids  so  necessary 
to  render  plant  food  available  for  the  higher  plants.  A 
crop  grown  for  green  manure  should,  if  possible,  be  a  legume 
in  order  to  obtain  the  free  atmospheric  nitrogen  in  a  com- 
bined form.  Frequently  a  legume  crop,  called  a  cover 
crop,  is  grown  in  the  orchard  for  the  purpose  of  plowing 
under  to  increase  the  humus  and  nitrogen  content  of  the 
orchard  soil  and  to  render  other  plant  foods  available. 

Limestone.  Older  soils  are  poorer  than  newer  ones. 
In  addition  to  the  plant  food  removed  from  the  soils  by 
crops,  the  older  soils,  in  some  cases,  have  lost  from  their  lime 
content  until  they  are  acidic,  or  sour.  Such  soils  are  non- 
productive, because  the  soil  bacteria  can  not  work  to  the 
greatest  efficiency  in  soil  that  is  acidic.  Moreover,  many 
of  the  higher  orders  of  plants  will  not  grow  in  such  soil. 
The  alfalfa  plant  and  some  other  legumes,  being  lime-loving 
plants,  will  not  thrive  in  an  acidic  soil.  It  thus  becomes  neces- 
sary to  make  large  additions  of  limestone  to  the  soil  of  many 
sections.  Fortunately,  most  of  the  soils  in  the  intermoun- 
tain  country  are  so  well  supplied  with  hmestone  that  the 
alfalfa  plant  and  other  legumes  grow  luxuriantly. 

Summary.  There  are,  then,  a  number  of  important 
factors  which  determine  the  crop-producing  power  of  the 
soil.  The  farmer  must  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  exer- 
cise a  favorable  control  over  these  factors  wherever  possible. 
If  the  soil  is  acidic  in  nature,  this  condition  should  be  cor- 
rected by  the  addition  of  ground  limestone;  if  the  soil  is 
heavily  charged  with  alkali,  it  should  be  removed  by  drain- 
age. The  farmer  in  the  intermountain  country  should  make 
better  use  of  barnyard  manure  and  green  manure,  and 
should  practice  a  system  of  crop  rotation. 


FERTILE  SOILS  107 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  six  factors  that  detenninc  iihmt  growth. 

2.  Which  of  these  can  man  control?     How? 

3.  Why  are  virgin  soils  fertile? 

4.  How  much  plant  food  do  croi:)s  use  for  each  acre? 

5.  How  do  rotations  help? 

6.  Explain  why  barnyard  manure  is  so  valuable. 

7.  When  should  green  manure  be  used? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  limestone  in  the  soil. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  map  of  a  farm  showing  the  fields.     In  each  field  show  the 

crops  grown  for  several  years. 

2.  Pour  a  few  spoonfuls  of  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  glass  vessel.     Dilute 

with  about  the  same  quantity  of  water.  Add  a  spoonful  of  soil. 
Foaming  indicates  the  presence  of  lime.  The  more  vigorous 
the  foaming  the  more  abundant  is  the  lime. 

3.  Place  a  few  spoonfuls  of  soil  in  two  deep  glass  vessels.     Fill  with 

water  and  shake  thoroughly.  To  one  add  a  spoonful  of  lime. 
In  a  half  hour  shake  both  vessels  again.  Observe  which  clears 
first.     The  lime  granulates  the  soil. 

REFERENCES 

Farm  Manures,  Thorne. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin  and  Buckman. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  Hopkins. 
Soils,  Hilgard. 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster. 
First  Principles  of  Soil  Fertility,  Vivian. 
Fertilizers  and  Crops,  Van  Slyke. 
U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  192.     Barnyard  Manure. 

278.     Leguminous  Crops  for  Green  Manuring 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  VALUE  OF  THE  RAINFALL 

It  is  well  known  that  some  regions  are  drier  than  others, 
that  when  plants  wilt  they  do  so  because  the  supply  of  mois- 
ture is  insufficient,  and  that  plants  grow  rapidly  after  a 
rainstorm  heavy  enough  to  moisten  the  soil  to  any  con- 
siderable depth.  Just  what  is  the  value  of  rainfall  in  def- 
inite terms  such  as  tons  of  hay  or  bushels  of  wheat  can  not 
be  generally  known  with  exactness. 

Quantity  of  Rainfall.  One  region  is  rainy  or  wet,  and 
another  one  is  dry,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  rain- 
fall, which  consists  of  rain,  hail,  snow,  and  sleet.  Unless 
the  amount  of  water  that  falls  in  a  section  is  stated  in  defi- 
nite terms,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  just  how  much  rainfall 
the  region  actually  has.  For  convenience  rainfall  is  reported 
in  inches  of  water.  If  all  the  moisture  that  falls  in  a  year 
could  be  saved  without  loss,  the  depth  in  inches  might  be 
measured  at  the  end  of  the  year  and  reported.  Where  a 
part  of  the  rainfall  is  snow,  hail,  or  sleet,  these  must  neces- 
sarily be  melted  and  the  depth  of  the  water  taken.  Be- 
cause some  snow  is  much  wetter  than  other,  the  depth  of 
snowfall  is  not  an  index  of  the  amount  of  water  it  contains. 
Since  it  is  impossible  to  save  the  rainfall  and  measure  it  all 
at  once,  carefully  devised  vessels  catch  the  moisture  falling 
in  each  storm  for  separate  measurement.  These  amounts 
are  added  to  give  the  total  precipitation  for  the  year. 

A  region  is  said  to  be  humid  when  ordinarily  there  is 
enough  rainfall  to  produce  crops  without  irrigation  water. 
Regions  that  have  too  little  rainfall  for  crop  production 
without  the  practice  of  either  irrigation  or  dry-farming,  are 
said  to  be  arid.     Transitional  regions,  that  is,  those  that  lie 

lOS 


VALUE  OF  THE  RAINFALL 


109 


between,  are  called  suhhumid  or  semiarid  regions.  Some- 
times these  terms  have  slightly  different  meanings,  but  not 
usually.  With  ordinary  soil  and  winds,  30  inches  of  rainfall 
during  the  year  is  usually  enough  to  enable  successful 
farming  without  special  culture  methods.  Less  than  20 
inches  is  commonly  taken  as  the  amount  of  rainfall  that  re- 
quires irrigation  or  special  tillage  methods.  Where  there 
is  between  20  and  30  inches,  crops  need  more  care  than  in 

a  humid  region, 
but  not  so  much 
as  in  an  arid 
section. 

Distribution 
of  Rainfall.  More 
than  half  of  the 
land  area  of  the 
earth  has  too  lit- 
tle rainfall  for 
the  most  profit- 
able agriculture. 
The  most  exten- 
sive areas  of  aridity  are  north  and  south  Africa,  Australia, 
except  the  northern  coast,  central  Asia,  southwest  Asia,  and 
southeast  Europe,  and  the  western  parts  of  both  Americas. 
In  the  United  States  the  dry  areas,  beginning  about  middle 
Kansas  and  Nebraska,  extend  westward  to  the  coast,  except 
the  western  strip  of  Washington,  Oregon,  and  northern  Cali- 
fornia. The  dry  regions  result  from  a  combination  of  winds, 
latitude,  oceans,  and  mountains  that  cause  the  rainfall  to  be 
scant  or  the  evaporation  to  be  high. 

Some  districts  have  storms  throughout  the  year,  at  near- 
ly regular  intervals,  whereas  others  have  alternate  periods  of 
wet  and  dry  weather.  In  California,  for  example,  the  rainfall 
comes  almost  entirely  during  the  winter;  in  Utah,  Nevada, 
and  southern  Idaho  rather  largely  during  the  later  winter 


Figure  '.M. — Edge  of  snow  drift.    Catchment  basin  under 
Mt.  Logan,  Utah. 


110  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

and  early  spring;  in  Arizona  durinj;  July  and  August;  in 
Montana  and  Wyoming  during  late  spring  and  early  summer; 
and  on  the  Great  Plains  during  the  whole  summer. 

Where  most  of  the  precipitation  falls  in  the  growing 
season,  plants  make  ready  use  of  it;  but  where  it  falls  be- 
fore the  crops  are  planted,  or,  at  least  before  they  begin 
to  grow  rapidly,  much  of  it  may  be  lost  before  the  time  of 
greatest  need.  Evaporation  is  high,  however,  when  the 
moisture  falls  largely  in  warm  weather.  Clear,  dry  harvest 
weather  is  also  a  decided  help. 

If  the  rainfall  is  slow  or  in  the  form  of  snow,  opportunity 
is  afforded  for  it  to  sink  into  the  soil.  Heavy  downpours, 
by  compacting  the  surface  soil  and  by  emptying  consid- 
erable quantities  of  water  on  the  soil  at  once,  encourage 
much  run-off.  Slow,  drizzling  rains  are,  therefore,  prefer- 
able to  sudden,  torrential  ones. 

Small  summer  showers  wet  only  the  surface  and  are 
evaporated  before  they  come  in  contact  with  the  active 
roots.  Larger  storms  are  more  efficient.  It  is  better  even 
to  have  the  rainfall  of  dry  regions  all  in  one  season  of  the 
year  than  well  distributed  in  small  storms. 

Crop  Yields.  Some  seasons  are  much  more  favorable 
to  crops  than  others.  Often  much  of  this  difference  is  due 
to  a  difference  in  rainfall.  One  year  in  Illinois  ISM  inches 
of  rainfall  during  the  growing  season  produced  32  bushels 
of  corn  to  the  acre.  The  next  year  under  similar  condi- 
tions, save  that  223^  inches  of  water  fell  in  the  growing 
season,  94  bushels  were  grown  on  each  acre.* 

Careful  investigations  have  shown  that  a  large  part  of 
any  crop  grown  under  irrigation  is  produced  by  the  nat- 
ural rainfall.  About  750  pounds  of  water  are  used  in  west- 
ern America  for  growing  one  pound  of  dry  substance  in  the 
wheat  plant.  Counting  one  half  of  this  to  be  straw,  each 
inch  of  water  on  an  acre  will  produce  about  2}/^  bushels  of 

♦Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  p.  207. 


VALUE  OF  THE  RAINFALL 


111 


grain,  if  no  water  is  wasted.  A  10-inch  precipitation  could 
supply  a  25-bushel  crop  with  moisture  till  maturity.  Where 
there  is  a  rainfall  of  20  inches,  large  crops  can  be  grown 
without  irrigation. 

Widtsoe  (Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  p.  234)  has 
estimated  that  under  a  light  irrigation  of  7/^  inches,  from  67 


Figure  32. — One  man  should  drive  an  extra  team  on  the  dry-f:i 


to  84  per  cent  of  the  yields  resulted  from  rainfall,  and  only 
16  to  33  per  cent  from  irrigation  water. 

Evaporation.  Plants  use  only  that  part  of  the  soil  mois- 
ture which  does  not  evaporate  or  drain  off  beneath.  In 
deep  soils  of  dry  sections  loss  from  percolation  may  be  prac- 
tically forgotten  so  far  as  rainfall  is  concerned.  Evapora- 
tion, however,  is  extremely  active.  It  is  so  intense  that  from 
two  to  ten  times  the  total  rainfall  will  evaporate  from  a 
water  surface  and  twice  this  much  from  a  wet  soil.  A  per- 
son cannot  but  wonder  how  any  water  at  all  is  left  in  the 
soil.     Indeed  it  is  little  the  plant  will  get  unless  great  care 


112 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


is  taken  to  prevent  losses  by  evaporation.  The  drier  the 
air,  the  hotter  the  soil,  and  the  freer  the  wind  movement, 
the  greater  will  be  the  evaporation. 

Winds.  If  high,  warm  winds  are  common,  they  pump 
immense  quantities  of  water  from  both  the  soil  and  the  plant. 
The  damp  atmosphere  immediately  above  plants  is  replaced 
by  dry  air  which  is  thirsty  for  water.     Only  by  getting  the 


•^;.     c^ 


d-^t:.    Vjk 


Figure  33. — A  reason  why  dry-farming  has  failed.     The  land  is  not  harrowed. 


moisture  deep  into  the  soil  and  by  making  a  protective  mulch 
on  the  surface,  can  it  be  saved  at  all  under  such  conditions. 

A  great  difficulty  is  that  regions  with  little  rainfall  have 
hot,  clear  weather,  warm  winds,  and  dry  air.  As  the  avail- 
able moisture  in  a  farming  section  gets  less  and  less,  the 
difficulty  as  well  as  the  importance  of  saving  it  becomes 
greater  and  greater. 

Soils  composed  of  particles  that  are  nearly  of  the  same 
size  and  that  are  neither  too  coarse  nor  too  fine,  permit  water 
to  move  back  and  forth  readily.  Seams  of  gravel  or  hard- 
pan,  however,  prevent  this  movement,  and  are,  therefore, 
undesirable.  Because  they  are  not  uniform,  such  soils  are 
nearly  useless  for  dry-farm  purposes.  To  be  effective  as 
crop  producers,  the  soils  of  dry  regions  ought  to  be  six,  eight, 


VALUE  OF  THE  RAINFALL  113 

or  more  feet  in  depth  without  gravel  or  hardpan  of  either 
clay  or  cemented  materials.  For  agricultural  purposes  a 
soil  has  no  more  depth  than  that  to  which  roots  can  go 
readily  or  from  which  water  can  rise  freely  to  feeding  roots. 
Root  Systems.  In  wet  soils  or  in  soils  with  a  hardpan 
near  the  surface,  plant  roots  do  not  penetrate  more  than 
two  or  three  feet.  In  dry-farm  areas  on  uniformly  deep 
soils,  wheat  roots  have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  more  than 
seven  feet  and  alfalfa  roots  at  more  than  twenty  feet.     It 


Figure  34. — Why  dry-farming  has  failed.     Tumble  weeds  are  allowed  to  grow 
on  fallow  land. 

has  been  found  that  soils  lose  water  from  as  much  as  fifteen 
feet  below  the  surface  in  the  case  of  grass  crops.  Water  is 
drawn  from  some  distance  below  the  deepest  roots.  Many 
of  our  dry-farm  crops  have  developed  extensive  root  sys- 
tems that  enable  them  to  feed  many  feet  below  the  surface 
where  evaporation  is  active.  A  good  loam  soil  ten  feet  deep 
can  hold  twenty-five  inches  of  water — enough  to  supply  an 
enormous  crop  of  grain  or  a  good  one  of  hay.  Dry-farm 
tillage  methods,  which  retain  this  water  for  plants,  are  the 
only  necessities  for  a  paying  crop,  if  the  soil  is  once  thor- 
oughly moistened. 

Dry-farming  is  the  name  given  that  kind  of  farming  in 
which  there  is  special  tillage  to  prevent  evaporation.  Until 
the  last  few  years,  dry  sections  were  carefully  avoided  by 


11*  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

home-seekers,  and  perhaps  wisely  so.  Investigations  in 
Utah,  CaUfornia,  and  on  the  Great  Plains,  however,  recently 
showed  that  it  was  possible  to  produce  crops  where  care  was 
taken  to  handle  the  soil  properly  and  to  choose  crops  that 
were  drouth-resistant.  Now,  dry-farming  is  practiced  not 
only  in  western  United  States,  but  in  Mexico,  western  Can- 
ada, South  America,  North  Africa,  South  Africa,  Australia 
India,  China,  Asia  Minor,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  Spain, 
and  other  countries.  The  people  of  these  countries  are  just 
finding  out  the  possibilities  of  crop  production  under  methods 
of  water  conservation. 

The  successful  practice  in  dry-farming  is  based  on  a  few 
fundamental  principles,  among  which  are: 

1.  Crops  require  more  or  less  definite  quantities  of  water 
for  successful  growth  under  given  conditions. 

2.  Some  plants  use  water  more  economically  than  others, 
and  are,  therefore,  better  adapted  to  the  dry-farm. 

3.  All  rainfall  should  be  made  to  pass  at  once  into  the 
soil  and  be  kept  there,  so  far  as  possible  beyond  the  influence 
of  evaporation. 

4.'  Careful  tillage  lessens  evaporation  and  also  causes 
plants  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  more  vigorously. 

5.  If  there  is  not  enough  rainfall  in  one  season  to  pro- 
duce a  profitable  yield,  the  land  should  be  cropped  only  once 
in  two  years,  the  moisture  of  the  fallow  year  being  stored  in 
the  soil  for  the  crop  the  following  year. 

6.  Nothing  except  the  crop  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
on  the  land  either  when  the  crop  is  growing  or  when  the 
land  is  being  fallowed. 

7.  Only  deep,  uniform  soils  ought  to  be  used,  because 
shallow  soils  or  ones  broken  by  gravel  or  hardpans  prevent 
root  development  and  free  movement  of  moisture. 

8.  Small  profits  from  each  acre  of  large  tracts  make  com- 
fortable incomes. 


VALUE  OF  THE  RAINFALL  115 

9.  Machinery  iiiicl  aiiiiiuils  necessary  for  rapid  cultiva- 
tion of  large  acreages  should  l^e  available. 

10.  Man  controls  the  whole  situation  by  thin  seeding 
at  the  proper  time,  and  on  good  seed  beds.  This  fact 
prevents  more  plants  from  beginning  life  than  can  mature 
with  the  water  available. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  rainfall  measured?     Who  measures  it  in  your  community? 

2.  Why  is  western  United  States  arid?     Western  Kansas?     Central 

Asia?     Northern  Africa?     India? 

3.  Describe  an  ideal  rainstorm. 

4.  Describe  a  "good  year"  and  a  "poor  year"  for  crops. 

5.  Why  does  water  evaporate?     Now  how  does  it?     What  causes 

evaporation? 

6.  How  much  rainfall  is  there  in  your  section?     In  neighboring 

towns?     Explain  difference  or  similarity. 

7.  How  extensive  are  plant  root  systems? 

8.  How  common  is  dry-farming  in  your  region?     In  the  United 

States?     In  the  world? 

9.  Give  the  five  principal  practices  in  dry-farming  in  order  of  im- 

portance.    State  the  theory  on  which  each  is  based. 
10.     What  is  a  cloudburst?     A  tornado?     A   typhoon?     A  chinook? 
A  "rain  belter"? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Expose  a  straight-sided  vessel  during  a  heavy  storm.     Measure 

the  depth  of  the  rainfall.     If  the  precipitation  is  snow,  melt  it 
first. 

2.  Set  up  some  straight-sided  cans,  fill  with  water.     Expose  some  in 

shade,  some  in  sunshine,  some  to  wind,  and  some  to  calm. 
Let  stand  for  a  few  days.     Note  the  loss  by  evaporation. 

3.  Compute  the  weight  of  an  acre-inch  of  water.     Of  an  acre-foot. 

Of  a  second-foot  for  12  hours. 

4.  Look  up  the  difference  between  the  equatorial  calms  and  the 

"horse  latitudes."     Why  are  there  great  belts  of  arid  regions 
near  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn? 

5.  Map  the  humid,  semi-arid,  and  the  arid  regions  of  the  United 

States  on  a  map.     Indicate  each  by  a  different  marking. 


116  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

REFERENCES 

Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 
Dry-Farming,  MacDonald. 
Soil  Culture  Manual,  Campbell. 
Irrigation,  Newell. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 
Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  Widtgoe. 
Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  For  tier. 
Use  of  Irrigation  Water,  Etcheverry. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.     769.     Growing  Grain  on  Southern  Idaho  Dry-Farms. 
773.      Com  Growing  Under  Droughty  Conditions. 
800.     Grains  for  the  Dry  Lands  of  Central  Oregon. 
878.     Grains  for  Western  North  and  South  Dakota. 
883.     Grains  for  the  Utah  Dry  Lands. 
Utah  Station  Bulletin  158.       Soil   Moisture    Studies   Under 

Dry-farming. 
Utah  Station  Circular  21.     Dry -farming  in  Utah. 
Nebraska  Research  Bulletin  5.     The  Storage  and  Use  of  Soil 
Moisture. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
STORING  AND  SAVING  SOIL  WATER 

Water  is  of  use  to  the  growing  plant  only  when  stored  in 
the  soil,  where  the  plant  roots  can  absorb  it.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that,  if  sufficient  water  be  stored  in  deep  soil 
at  the  time  of  planting,  there  is  little  need  of  it  during  the 
growing  period  of  the  plant.  The  maintenance  in  the  soil, 
therefore,  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  is  one  of  the  very 
important  considerations  for  successful  farming. 

Water-holding  Capacity  of  Soils.  There  is  a  strong 
attraction  between  soil  particles  and  water,  as  shown  by  the 
water  film  which  clings  around  a  stone  after  it  has  been 
dipped  in  water.  Water  added  to  a  soil  clings  around  the 
soil  particles  as  a  thin  film  in  which  the  root  hairs  are  bathed 
and  from  which  the  water  necessary  for  plant  growth  is 
drawn.  There  are  also  in  the  soil  varying  quantities  of 
so-called  colloidal  substances  which,  when  mixed  with  water, 
form  jelly-Hke  compounds.  Some  water  is  held  in  the  soil 
in  this  form.  The  total  quantity  of  water  that  may  be 
held  around  the  soil  particles  and  by  the  colloidal  soil  con- 
stituents without  draining  off  represents  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  the  soil.  In  coarse,  sandy  soils  this  is  low,  often 
going  down  to  10  per  cent  or  less  of  the  weight  of  the  soil; 
in  fine,  clayey  soils  it  may  rise  to  40  per  cent  or  more  of  the 
weight  of  the  soil.  In  loamy  soils  the  water  capacity  is 
more  nearly  between  20  and  25  per  cent. 

A  cubic  foot  of  loam  soil  weighs  in  the  neighborhood  of 
80  pounds.  Assuming  its  water  capacity  to  be  20  per  cent, 
it  would  hold  16  pounds  of  water.  A  column  of  soil  one 
square  foot  at  the  top  and  eight  feet  deep  would  then  hold 
128  pounds  of  water,  equaling  a  trifle  more  than  2  feet  of 

117 


118  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

rainfall.  Since  the  capacity  of  soils  for  storing  water  is  so 
large,  it  should  be  well  understood  by  the  farmer. 

Downward  Movement  of  Soil  Water.  When  water  is 
added  to  a  soil,  the  partictles  near  the  surface  take  up  all  the 
water  that  they  can  hold.  The  excess  passes  downward 
through  the  soil  pores,  and  as  it  moves  downward  the  soil 
particles  take  up  as  much  as  they  can  hold.  The  depth  to 
which  water  passes  depends  on  the  quantity  of  water  added 
to  the  soil.  If  less  water  is  added  than  is  needed  to  satisfy 
the  water  capacity  of  the  soil,  most  water  will  be  found  near 
the  top  of  the  soil  and  less  and  less  at  lower  depths.  It  is 
important  that  as  much  as  possible  of  the  water  that  falls 
on  the  soil  descend  well  beyond  the  reach  of  the  sun's  heat. 
To  accomplish  this  result,  the  subsoil  should  always  be  kept 
somewhat  moist;  for  water  travels  downward  very  slowly 
in  a  dry  soil.  This  principle  is  of  particular  importance  in 
countries  where  the  rainfall  is  light.  If  so  much  water  is 
added  that  it  percolates  freely  to  the  standing  water  table 
or  an  impervious  hardpan,  the  soil  pores  tend  to  become 
clogged  with  water,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  plant. 
No  more  water  should  be  found  in  the  soil  than  can  be  held 
against  drainage  by  the  soil  particles.  In  order  to  promote 
best  plant  growth,  the  soil  pores  should  be  partially  open. 

Extent  of  Water  Storage  in  Soils.  In  sections  where 
most  of  the  rainfall  comes  in  winter,  as  in  the  intermoun- 
tain  region,  a  large  part  of  the  winter's  precipitation  can 
be  stored  in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  the  next  crop.  From 
50  to  90  per  cent  of  the  water  that  falls  as  rain  and  snow 
during  the  winter  is  found  stored  in  the  soil,  at  seed  time, 
when  proper  cultural  methods  have  been  employed. 

In  sections  where  the  summers  are  wet,  as  in  the  Great 
Plains  region,  less  of  the  water  that  falls  can  be  stored  in 
the  soil;  but,  even  in  such  places  on  bare  soils,  35  to  75  per 
cent  of  the  water  that  falls  may  be  found  stored  in  the 
soil  at  the  close  of  the  season. 


STORING  AND  SAVING  SOIL  WATER  119 

That  water  may  be  stored  in  soils  for  the  use  of  plants 
has  been  well  demonstrated. 

Storage  for  Biennial  Cropping.  The  low  rainfall  of  some 
sections  makes  cropping  without  irrigation  rather  uncer- 
tain. For  such  conditions  the  attempt  has  been  made  to 
store  in  the  soil  a  large  proportion  of  the  rainfall  of  two 
seasons,  to  be  used  by  one  crop.  By  this  method  the  land 
is  left  bare,  or  fallow,  for  one  year  and  planted  in  crop  the 
following  year.  In  sections  with  winter  rains,  this  method 
seems  to  be  more  successful  than  where  the  rainfall  comes 
chiefly  in  summer.  If  the  land  is  allowed  to  rest  one  year, 
however,  provided  it  is  kept  free  from  weeds  and  volunteer 
crops,  and  is  carefully  cultivated,  some  of  the  moisture 
then  gathered  is  carried  over  to  the  next  year.  There  are 
many  other  beneficial  effects  of  fallowing,  that,  combined 
with  its  water-storing  power,  make  it  an  excellent  agricul- 
tural practice  in  regions  of  low  rainfall,  where  irrigation 
can  not  be  practiced. 

Cultural  Methods.  Reasonably  deep  plowing,  to  six  or 
eight  inches,  tends  to  make  it  easier  for  the  water  to  de- 
scend into  the  lower  depths  of  soil.  Deep  plowing  should 
be  practiced  cautiously,  however,  if  the  subsoil  is  some- 
what lifeless  or  inert.  On  most  arid  soils  it  may  be  prac- 
ticed with  impunity. 

Fall  plowing  is  also  a  good  practice  for  water  storage, 
especially  in  regions  of  winter  precipitation.  Land  well 
plowed  and  in  a  rough  condition  catches  the  drifting  snow 
and  absorbs  the  water. 

To  enable  water  to  pass  into  the  soil  to  be  stored  there, 
the  top  soil  must  be  kept  loose  and  spongy.  Any  treatment 
that  will  promote  this  condition  will  help  the  storage  of 
water  in  soils. 

Water  Loss  by  Evaporation.  Evaporation  is  the  chief 
cause  of  loss  of  soil  water.  Water  is  very  easily  changed 
into  vapor,  which  passes  into  the  atmosphere.     In  most 


120  WESTERN  AORICULTUKE 

localities  the  quantity  of  water  that  would  evaporate,  were 
it  available,  is  much  greater  than  the  rainfall.  Thus,  at 
Fort  Yuma,  Arizona,  100  inches  of  water  would  evaporate 
annually  from  a  free  water  surface,  while  the  annual  rain- 
fall is  only  2.84  inches.  At  Fort  Duschene,  Utah,  75  inches 
would  evaporate  while  the  rainfall  is  6.49  inches;  and  at 
El  Paso,  Texas,  the  evaporation  is  8.7  times  larger  than 
the  rainfall;  at  Pineville,  Oregon,  7.8  times;  at  Lost  River, 
Idaho,  8.3  times;  at  Laramie,  Wyoming,  7.1  times;  and  at 
Mohave,  California,  19.1  times. 

Water  evaporates  from  a  wet  soil  as  from  a  water  sur- 
face. As  the  water  at  the  surface  is  evaporated,  the  water 
lower  down  in  the  soil  slowly  moves  upward,  and  is  in  turn 
evaporated.  The  higher  the  temperature,  the  more  abun- 
dant the  sunshine,  the  drier  the  air,  the  stronger  the  winds, 
and  the  wetter  the  soil,  the  more  rapid  the  evaporation. 

Tillage  to  Reduce  Evaporation.  The  large  possible  loss 
of  soil  water  by  evaporation  must  be  reduced,  or  there 
will  be  no  water  left  for  the  use  of  plants.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  stirring  carefully  the  top  soil.  This  leaves 
a  blanket  of  loose  dry  soil  over  the  land,  which  has  been 
found  to  be  an  effective  protection  against  water  loss  by 
evaporation.  Such  cultivation  with  a  harrow  or  any  other 
satisfactory  cultivator,  should  be  practiced  after  every  rain 
or  irrigation,  and  should  be  deep  and  thorough,  though 
it  is  not  advisable  to  form  a  dust  mulch  over  the  land. 

Loss  by  Transpiration.  Much  water  is  also  taken  from 
the  soil  by  plants.  The  tiny  roots  absorb  water  which  is 
passed  upward  through  the  plant  and  finally  evaporated 
chiefly  from  the  leaves.  This  process,  known  as  transpira- 
tion, is  essential  to  j^lant  life.  The  water  taken  from  the 
soil  contains  in  solution  the  necessary  plant  foods,  and  by 
the  process  of  transpiration  these  are  distributed  in  the 
plant.  For  every  pound  of  dry  plant  substance  produced, 
from  about  300  to  2,000  pounds  or  more  of  water  are 


STORING  AND  8AVING  SOIL  WATER  121 

required.  (Sec  Chapter  XV.)  The  average  is  probably  not 
far  from  500  pounds.  The  rate  at  which  water  passes 
through  a  plant  depends  on  many  factors.  Transpira- 
tion is  increased  by  a  high  temperature,  abundant  sunshine, 
a  dry  atmosphere,  high  winds,  and  a  dilute  soil  solution, 
that  is,  a  soil  poor  in  plant  food. 

Controlling  the  Transpiration.  It  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  control  the  temperature,  sunshine,  air,  or  winds 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  reduce  transpiration.  It  is,  however, 
possible  to  affect  the  plant  food  in  the  soil  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  change  the  transpiration.  It  is  known  that  the  more 
soluble  plant  food  there  is  in  the  soil,  the  less  water  is  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter.  To  get  a  larger 
crop  with  a  given  quantity  of  water  in  the  soil,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  increase  the  plant  food.  This  increase  may  be 
accomplished  most  directly  by  adding  commercial  ferti- 
lizers or  by  manuring.  In  one  set  of  experiments,  908 
pounds  of  water  were  required  to  produce  one  pound  of 
dry  corn.  By  adding  to  this  soil  an  ordinary  dressing  of 
manure,  this  was  reduced  to  613  pounds.  Keeping  soils 
well  manured  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  best  methods  of 
reducing  the  transpiration. 

It  has  also  been  found,  however,  that  the  careful  and 
thorough  stirring  of  the  top  soil  will  reduce  transpiration. 
In  an  experiment  on  a  sandy  loam,  603  pounds  of  water 
were  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter;  when  this 
was  cultivated,  only  252  pounds  were  required.  Culti- 
vation no  doubt  promotes  soil  fertility,  and,  therefore, 
reduces  the  water  cost  of  dry  matter. 

The  system  of  fallowing,  already  discussed,  also  tends 
to  liberate  the  plant  food  of  the  soil,  and,  consequently,  on 
fallow  soils  less  water  is  required  to  produce  crops  than 
on  soils  continuously  cropped. 

Plowing  stubble  or  growing  plants  into  the  soil  also 
increases  soil  fertility  and  reduces  the  water  cost  of  crops. 


122  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  way  do  soils  hold  water? 

2.  How  does  water  move  downward  in  soils? 

3.  To  what  extent  may  water  be  stored? 

4.  How  does  fallowing  help?     Cultivating? 

5.  How  may  evaporation  be  decreased? 

G.     Explain  how  plants  may  be  made  to  use  water  economically. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Dampen  soil  and  fill  several  deep  vessels  three  fourths  full.     Cover 

some  with  three  or  four  inches  of  sand,  some  with  straw,  and 
have  some  uncovered.     What  happens  in  a  week?     Explain. 

2.  Dig  a  hole  a  foot  deep  in  the  soil.     Fill  with  water  two  or  three 

times.     Next  day  dig  down  to  find  how  far  and  in  which  direc- 
tions the  water  has  moved. 

REFERENCES 

Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 

Dry-Farming,  MacDonald. 

Soil  Culture  Manual,  Campbell. 

Soils,  Lyon,  Fippon,  and  Buckman. 

Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  Widtsoe. 

Soils  and  Soil  Fertility,  Whitson  and  Walster 

Soils,  Fletcher. 

Soil  Management,  King. 

Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  Fortier. 

Use  of  Irrigation  Water,  Etcheverry. 

U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  266.     Management  of  Soils  to  Conserve  Moisture. 
406.    Soil  Conservation. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SOWING  AND  CARING  FOR  DRY-FARM  CROPS 

Soil  Preparation.  An  important  feature  of  dry-farming 
is  the  preparation  of  the  soil  so  that  it  will  be  a  suitable  bed 
for  the  germination  of  seeds.  The  plowing  should  be  done 
when  the  soil  is  not  too  wet  nor  too  dry,  as  either  extreme 
will  make  it  cloddy.  The  best  tilth  is  secured  by  plowing 
the  land  when  it  contains  just  enough  moisture  to  allow  it 
to  pulverize  readily.  Plowing  done  in  the  fall  is  usually 
better  than  that  done  in  the  spring,  and  deep  plowing  better 
than  shallow.     Eight  to  ten  inches  is  usually  a  good  depth. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  go  over  the  land  with  some  kind  of 
harrow  or  leveler  immediately  after  plowing,  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  clods.  When  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  how- 
ever, and  is  to  stand  over  winter  without  a  crop,  it  is  wise  to 
leave  it  unharrowed,  especially  in  regions  receiving  much 
precipitation  in  the  winter. 

With  new  land  it  is  advisable  to  prepare  the  soil  con- 
siderable time  before  planting  the  seed,  so  that  the  soil  may 
have  a  chance  to  weather  and  store  moisture. 

Germination.  In  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  the 
central  idea  should  be  to  produce  conditions  favorable  to  the 
germination  of  seed.  Many  factors  influence  germination; 
the  three  most  important  are,  heat,  oxygen,  and  moisture. 

There  are  not  many  ways  in  which  the  farmer  can  in- 
fluence the  heat  of  his  soil.  Thorough  drainage,  dark  color, 
and  coarse  texture  all  favor  an  early  warming  of  the  soil  and 
consequently  promote  a  rapid  germination  of  the  seed.  The 
oxygen  supply  is  increased  by  loosening  tlie  soil.  A  soil 
which  has  not  been  stirred  does  not  furnish  sufficient  air  for 
the  best  germination  of  seed. 


124  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

The  most  important  single  factor  concerned  in  germina- 
tion of  seed  on  dry-farms  is  the  soil  moisture.  It  is  often 
difficult  to  have  the  best  quantity  of  moisture  present  at  the 
season  when  seeds  should  be  planted.  If  there  is  only  enough 
water  to  start  germination,  the  drying  which  follows  reduces 
the  vitality  of  the  germ.  It  is  often  necessary  to  plant  seed 
in  dry  soil  "and  wait  for  a  rain  to  furnish  water  for  germina- 
tion. This  venture,  at  best,  is  unsatisfactory.  It  is  much 
better,  by  means  of  the  summer  fallow  or  in  some  other  way, 
to  have  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  at  the  time  of  planting 
to  bring  the  seed  up. 

Sowing  the  Crop.  In  the  Great  Basin,  crops  sown  in  the 
fall  usually  grow  better  than  those  planted  in  the  spring,  a 
result,  no  doubt,  of  the  precipitation  that  comes  in  the 
winter.  Fall  varieties  mature  earlier  than  those  planted  in 
the  spring.  Such  crops  as  potatoes  must,  however,  be 
planted  in  the  spring.  Even  for  spring  planting  it  is  usually 
better  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall. 

The  small  grains  may  either  be  drilled  in  or  sown  broad- 
cast; but  experiments  have  demonstrated  the  superiority  of 
drilling.  Disk  drills  followed  by  press  wheels  have  been 
most  successful.  The  object  of  the  press  wheels  is  to  com- 
pact the  soil  firmly  around  the  seeds  to  help  them  in  absorb- 
ing moisture  for  germination.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
compact  just  as  little  of  the  soil  as  possible. 

In  planting  dry-farm  crops  great  care  must  be  exercised 
not  to  sow  too  much  seed,  since  a  heavy  stand  is  likely  to 
use  all  the  moisture  at  first  and  leave  none  to  mature  the 
crop.  With  wheat,  from  one  half  to  one  bushel  to  the  acre 
is  as  much  as  is  wise  to  plant. 

The  depth  to  sow  (lr>^-farm  seed  depends  on  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  and  especially  on  the  amount  of  moisture 
present.  When  the  surface  is  dry  it  is  often  necessary  to 
plant  very  deep,  five  or  six  inches,  in  order  to  put  the  seed 
in  moist  soil.     If,  however,  the  top  soil  has  sufficient  mois- 


STORING  AND  CARE  OF  DRY-FARM  CROPS  125 

ture  to  bring  the  crop  up  well,  it  is  advisable  not  to  plant  too 
deep.  With  the  small  grains,  it  is  well  to  plant  as  shallow 
as  a  good  germination  can  be  secured;  but,  if  the  soil  is  dry, 
deeper  planting  is  necessary. 

Cultivation.  After  the  seed  is  planted  it  is  rarely  neces- 
sary to  do  anything  until  the  crop  comes  up,  but  as  soon  as 
the  plants  are  well  through  the  ground  cultivation  should 
begin.  It  is  usually  best  to  harrow  the  young  crop  every 
few  weeks  till  the  plants  get  so  large  that  they  are  injured 
by  harrowing.  With  the  small  grains,  cultivation  for  the 
season  usually  ends  at  this  time;  but,  with  crops  planted  in 
rows,  such  as  corn  and  potatoes,  the  cultivator  can  well  be 
used  very  much  later.  Constant  cultivation  of  crops  is  one 
of  the  chief  keys  to  success  in  dry-farming. 

Harvesting.  The  methods  of  harvesting  dry-farm  crops 
are  not  greatly  different  from  those  used  for  irrigated  crops. 
Dry-farms  are  usually  large  and  are  consequently  able  to  use 
large  machinery  with  profit.  The  header,  self-binder,  and 
combined  harvester  are  the  chief  implements  used  in  har- 
vesting small  grains.  The  header  and  the  combined  har- 
vester can  be  used  successfully  only  where  the  ripening  of 
the  grain  is  fairly  uniform.  In  harvesting  corn  and  potatoes 
on  dry-farms,  machinery  should  likewise  be  used. 

Storing  and  Marketing.  Many  dry-farmers,  on  account 
of  not  having  proper  facilities  for  storing  crops,  are  compelled 
to  sell  when  the  market  price  is  low.  The  equipment  of  the 
farm  is  by  no  means  complete  until  there  is  some  adequate 
way  of  caring  for  crops  till  market  conditions  justify  selling. 
It  is  sometimes  better  to  have  arrangements  for  storage  at 
an  elevator  on  the  railroad  than  to  make  special  granaries 
on  the  farm.  Such  storage  is  often  very  economical.  Prices 
of  crops  are  as  a  rule  low  at  harvest  time;  hence  it  often  pays 
better  not  to  sell  at  that  time. 

Crops  for  the  Dry-farm.  So  far,  the  small  grains  ha\e 
been  the  chief  dry-land  crops  of  the  Great  Basin.     Of  these. 


126  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Wheat  leads;  barley,  rye,  and  oats  have  all  been  raised  suc- 
cessfully; and  emmer  has  given  some  promise.  Potatoes 
have  been  a  very  successful  crop  in  some  regions,  but  no 
great  area  has  been  devoted  to  them.  As  forage  crops, 
both  alfalfa  and  smooth  brome  grass  have  done  well.  Com, 
in  many  respects,  is  a  good  dry-land  crop.  The  fact  that 
the  rate  of  planting  can  be  made  to  comply  so  easily  with 
the  amount  of  soil  moisture,  and  that  the  uncropped  space 
can  be  readily  cultivated,  make  it  particularly  useful  in 
dry-farming.  In  the  Southwest,  milo  maize  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  dry-farm  crops.  Some  of  the  other  sor- 
ghums are  also  promising.  Sudan  grass  is  proving  to  be  an 
excellent  forage  crop  in  some  sections.  Each  dry-farming 
region  has  crops  which  are  particularly  adapted  to  it.  One 
of  the  difficult  things  in  diy-farming  is  to  get  profitable 
crops  that  will  make  a  good  rotation. 

Wheat  raised  on  dr3r-farms  is  very  much  better  than  that 
raised  under  irrigation.  It  is  harder  and  contains  more 
nitrogen  and  gluten  and  consequently  makes  better  flour. 
The  straw  of  dry-land  grain  is  superior  for  feeding  to  that  of 
irrigated  grain.  Forage  crops  raised  on  dry-farms  are 
especially  valuable  on  account  of  the  high  percentage  of 
nitrogen  and  dry  matter  that  they  contain.  They  seem 
also  to  have  a  higher  percentage  of  leaves. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  important  to  harrow  dry-farm  land  immediately  after 

plowing? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  of  a  good  seed  bed? 

3.  What  conditions  favor  the  rapid  germination  of  seed? 

4.  How  does  the  amount  of  seed  planted  on  the  dry-farm  compare 

with  that  used  under  humid  conditions? 
f).     How  do  the  yields  of  fall  and  spring  varieties  of  grain  compare  in 

the  Great  Basin?     What  is  the  reason  for  the  difference? 
().     Why  is  cultivation  so  important  in  dry-farming? 
7.     What  crops  have  been  most  successful  under  dry-farming? 


STORING  AND  CARE  OF  DRY-FARM  CROPS  127 

EXERCISES  AND  niOJECTS 

1.  Make  ti  box  having  one  side  covered  Avith  glass.     Plant  wheat  or 

other  grain  at  various  dej^ths — from  one  inch  to  eight  inches — 
and  cover  with  moist  soil.  The  seeds  are  to  be  planted  against 
the  glass  in  order  that  the  time  of  germination  and  the  nature 
of  growth  may  be  noted.  It  is  probably  best  to  add  some  soil 
and  then  place  the  seeds  against  the  glass  and  cover  with  soil. 
Repeat  this  until  all  the  seed  desired  is  properly  placed  and 
covered. 

2.  Place  clay  or  clay-loam  soil  well  pulverized  into  six  vessels.     Wet 

all  of  the  soil  thoroughly.  Now  allow  to  stand;  when  they  begin, 
to  dry  add  a  little  water  to  five,  leaving  one  to  dry.  Next  day 
add  a  little  water  to  four.  Each  day  add  water  to  one  less. 
This  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  have  the  wetness  of  the  soil 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment  vary  from  very  wet  to  right  dry. 
Now  take  a  sharpened  piece  of  wood  and  draw  through  soils  as 
a  plow  would  move.  Note  the  relative  ease  of  cultivation 
with  different  degrees  of  wetness.  Allow  to  stand  until  all  are 
dry.     Note  results. 

REFERENCES 

Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 

Dry-Farming,  MacDonald. 

Year  Book  (U.  S.  D.  A.)  1900,  p.  529;  1907,  p.  451. 

U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  139.      A  Grain  for  Semiarid  Regions:  Emmer. 

246.     Saccharine  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

322.     Milo  as  a  Dry-land  Grain  Crop. 

738.     Cereal  Crops  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texas. 

749.     Grains  for  the  Montana  Dry  Lands. 

769.     Growing  Grain  on  Southern  Idaho  Dry  Farms. 

773.     Corn  Growing  under  Droughty  Conditions. 

800.     Grains  for  the  Dry  Lands  of  Central  Oregon. 

878.     Grains  for  western  North  and  South  Dakota. 

883.     Grains  for  the  Utah  Dry  Lands. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER 

In  the  United  States  the  ''cubic  foot  per  second''  is  the 
unit  generally  used  to  designate  the  volume  of  moving  water. 
In  the  measurement  of  flowing  water  there  are  two  elements 
to  be  considered,  the  area  of  water  front,  multiphed  by  its 
velocity,  or  rate  of  its  flow.  The  velocity  of  flowing  water 
is  most  often  measured  by  its  rate  of  flow  in  a  second. 

Second-foot.  If  we  assume  a  channel  to  be  one  foot 
wide  and  the  depth  of  water  in  the  channel  to  be  one  foot, 
we  then  have  an  area  of  one  square  foot.  If  we  assume  that 
the  flow  of  water  in  this  channel  is  at  the  rate  of  one  linear 
foot  a  second,  there  would  pass  a  given  point  one  cubic  foot 
of  water  each  second.  The  flow  of  this  stream  would  be 
one  cubic  foot  per  second,  or,  as  frequently  designated,  one 
second-foot.  If  the  channel  were  five  feet  wide  and  the 
depth  of  water  three  feet  and  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  water 
two  feet  a  second,  the  channel  would  be  carrying  (5X3 
X  2  =  30;  area  X  velocity  =  volume)  thirty  second-feet. 

Acre-foot.  The  term  acre-foot  is  most  frequently  used 
to  designate  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  a  reservoir 
or  the  depth  of  water  applied  to  land  by  irrigation.  An 
acre-foot  of  water  is  the  amount  that  would  cover  an  acre 
to  the  depth  of  one  foot,  or  43,560  cubic  feet.  A  second- 
foot  flowing  continuously  for  twenty-four  hours  equals  1.98 
acre-feet,  or,  as  commonly  expressed,  ''A  second-foot  for 
twenty-four  hours  equals  two  acre-feet." 

Miner*s  Inch.  The  miner's  inch  is  a  measure  deriving 
its  origin  from  an  attempt  of  the  early  mining  and  irrigation 
interests  of  the  West  to  devise  a  method  of  measuring  water 
in  natural  and  artificial  channels.     The  quantity  of  water 

12S 


MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER  129 

represented  by  a  miner's  inch  is  variable,  because  it  is  sub- 
ject to  the  statutes  of  various  states.  The  miner's  inch  is 
measured  by  means  of  a  rectangular  opening  in  a  channel. 
The  depth  of  water  over  the  top  of  the  opening  varies  from 
43^  to  6  inches.  It  takes  from  48.4  miner's  inches  in  Colorado 
to  more  than  70  inches  in  Dakota  to  equal  one  cubic  foot 
a  second;  hence  the  miner's  inch  is  fast  going  out  of  use. 

The  Gallon  Measure.  The  gallon  measure  is  used  ex- 
tensively by  engineers  in  calculating  the  supply  of  water 
for  municipal  purposes.  The  flow  of  water  is  expressed  in 
the  number  of  gallons  that  would  flow  in  a  minute  of  time. 
A  gallon  equals  231  cubic  inches,  and  it  requires  7.48  gal- 
lons to  make  one  cubic  foot,  or  448.8  gallons  per  minute 
to  equal  one  second-foot. 

Methods  of  Measurement.  To  determine  the  rate  of 
flow  of  any  channel  it  is  necessary,  as  stated  above,  to  know 
the  area  of  the  channel  and  the  velocity  of  the  water.  The 
width  is  determined  by  direct  measurement  with  line  or 
surveyor's  instrument.  The  depth  is  taken  at  intervals 
across  the  stream  near  a  bridge  or  by  means  of  a  car  run 
on  a  cable.  The  velocity  is  most  frequently  determined 
by  the  use  of  a  current  meter  or  by  means  of  floats. 

The  current  meter  consists  essentially  of  a  series  of 
vanes  or  cups  revolving  horizontally  around  a  vertical  axis. 
The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  meter  is  determined  in 
relation  to  the  velocity  of  the  flowing  water  in  which  it  is 
held.  The  meter  is  lowered  into  the  water;  a  sounder  held 
to  the  ear  gives  clicks  for  turns  of  the  vanes,  which  are 
counted.  Thus,  by  the  use  of  the  current  meter,  the  velocity 
of  the  water  can  be  ascertained.  The  meter  is  used  in 
determining  the  velocity  of  water  in  large  and  small 
streams.  It  is  generally  necessary  to  measure  a  stream  in 
several  places  as  the  velocity  varies  considerably.  The  mid- 
dle flows  faster  than  the  sides;  the  top,  faster  than  the  bot- 
tom; and  the  center,  faster  than  the  top.  To  multiply  the 
9— 


130  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

width  by  the  depth  and  this  result  by  the  velocity  means 
that  averages  must  be  used.  Now,  averages  are  extremely 
hard  to  get  for  either  the  depth  or  the  velocity;  hence  quick 
measurements  are  very  crude,  and  careful  ones  can  only 
approximate  the  flow.  A  large  stream  ought,  therefore,  to 
be  computed  by  sections. 

Floats  are,  as  the  term  implies,  objects  placed  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  allowed  to  float  with  the  current. 
The  rate  at  which  the  float  travels  between  two  given  points 
will  determine  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  stream.  Surface 
floats  are  subject  to  action  of  winds  and  currents  and  measure 
only  the  rate  of  the  flow  of  the  surface  water,  and  hence  do  not 
give  an  average.  The  submerged  float  is  frequently  used 
and  consists  essentially  of  the  surface  float  having  suspended 
from  it  by  means  of  a  small  wire  some  kind  of  a  weight. 
The  use  of  any  float  gives  only  approximate  results. 

The  rating  flume  usually  consists  of  a  rectangular  flume 
or  channel  permanent  in  its  nature.  The  velocity  of  the 
water  in  the  flume  is  determined  by  the  use  of  the  current 
meter  at  times  of  different  depths  of  water  in  the  flume, 
the  flow  of  the  stream  being  calculated  thereby.  From  these 
measurements  and  calculations  a  table  is  made  so  that  know- 
ing the  depth  of  water  in  the  channel  at  any  time,  the  flow 
of  the  channel  can  he  ascertained  by  reference  to  the  table. 

The  Weir.  The  methods  of  determining  the  flow  of 
water  enumerated  above  may  be  termed  direct  methods. 

The  weir  is  a  means  of  determining  the  total  flow  by  the 
application  of  principles  and  formulas  derived  from  experi- 
ments. In  the  use  of  the  weir,  the  velocity  of  the  water  is 
estimated  as  it  passes  through  the  opening.  A  weir  consists 
essentially  of  a  regularly  formed  opening  of  definite  shape 
and  size.  There  are  three  forms  of  weirs:  (1)  the  rect- 
angular weir  having  a  horizontal  bottom  and  vertical  sides; 
(2)  the  trapezoidal,  or  Cippoletti  weir,  the  bottom  of  the 
opening  being  horizontal  and  the  sides  having  a  slope  of  one 


MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER  131 

measure  horizontal  to  four  vertical;  (3)  the  triangular  or 
V-shaped  weir,  whose  sides  slope  forty-five  degrees,  which 
is  sometimes  used  in  measuring  very  small  quantities  of 
water.     The  trapezoidal  weir  is  the  one  generally  used. 

The  weir  is  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  engineer  or  lay- 
man. It  measures  the  depth  of  water  passing  through  the 
opening.  Then,  either  by  calculation  or  from  tables,  the 
flow  of  water  is  readily  determined. 

In  measuring  the  depth  of  water  passing  over  a  weir 
crest,  the  measurement  of  the  depth  or  head  must  be  made 
at  a  point  a  few  feet  up  stream  from  the  weir.  The  water 
in  passing  over  the  crest  of  the  weir  has  a  curved  upper 
surface  and  the  experimental  depth  is  the  one  measured 
above  the  point  where  this  curvature  occurs. 

Inches  of  Water.  In  many  sections  of  the  West  there 
has  come  into  use  a  term,  inches  of  water,  which  derived 
its  origin  from  placing  rectangular  boxes  of  desired  sizes  in 
the  canal.  The  size  of  these  boxes,  or  openings,  was  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  shares  of  stock  owned  in  the  ditch 
by  the  individual  or  individuals  using  water  from  this  open- 
ing. No  attention  was  paid  to  the  depth  of  water  above  the 
opening  or  the  grade  or  slope  of  the  boxes  or  of  the  flume 
leading  away  from  the  opening.  If,  for  instance,  a  person's 
interest  in  a  canal  entitled  him  to  one  hundred  inches,  he 
would  have  placed  in  the  bank  of  the  canal  a  box  ten  inches 
by  ten  inches  inside  measurement.  If  he  were  near  the 
head  of  the  canal  he  would  have  from  one  to  three  feet  of 
water  above  this  box,  while  near  the  lower  end  of  the  canal 
he  might  have  but  a  few  inches.  Thus,  the  man  at  the  head 
of  the  canal  might,  and,  by  actual  measurements,  did, 
receive  from  one  and  one  half  to  three  times  as  much  water 
as  the  man  at  the  lower  end  of  the  canal. 

In  the  division  of  water  in  natural  streams  and  in  arti- 
ficial channels  the  early  courts  have  decided  that  the  re- 
spective openings  should  be  of  a  specified  width;  but  in  few. 


132  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

if  any,  cases  did  the  court  specify  the  grade  of  the  channel 
at  and  immediately  below  the  division. 

This  method  of  measure  or  division  is  very  rapidly  pass- 
ing out  of  use. 

Automatic  Devices.  There  have  been  invented,  within 
the  past  twenty  years,  numerous  automatic  measuring  and 
dividing  devices  most  of  which  have  been  especially  designed 
to  deliver  to  the  users  from  the  canal  a  definite  quantity  of 
water.  Because  the  water  of  western  streams  fluctuates 
from  day  to  day,  and  even  during  the  day,  and  also  because 
during  a  part  of  the  irrigation  season  the  water  is  turbid, 
or  has  vegetable  matter  floating  upon  it,  these  devices  have 
proved  unsatisfactory. 

Kutter*s  Formula.  By  numerous  experiments  and  trials 
there  has  been  found  a  formula  for  the  calculation  of  the 
flow  of  water  in  natural  and  artificial  streams.  This  for- 
mula is  known  as  Kutter's  formula,  based  upon  the  action 
of  gravity  upon  water.  Where  the  channel  is  uniform  and 
regular,  the  formula  gives  fairly  good  results.  It  is  used  ex- 
tensively by  engineers,  especially  for  preliminary  work  and 
for  the  designing  of  sizes  and  grades  of  artificial  channels. 
It  is,  however,  so  complicated  that  only  specialists  can  use  it. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  should  water  he  measured? 

2.  Define  second-foot,  acre-foot,  miner's  inch,  current  meter,  float, 

rating  flume,  and  weir. 

3.  How  is  water  measured? 

4.  Why  do  some  men  get  more  water  from  canals  than  others? 
.').     Describe  an  automatic  device  for  measuring  water. 

6.     What  is  Kutter's  formula? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECrrS 

1.  If  possible,  practice  measuring  a  stream  at  a  weir  or  flume.  This 
may  be  done  in  either  of  two  ways.  The  simpler  way  is  to  find 
a  weir  and  to  measure  the  width  of  the  weir  crest  (at  bottom  of 


MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER  133 

notch)  and  to  measure  depth  of  water  on  a  nail  which  is  set 
level  with  the  weir  crest  some  distance  back  of  the  notch.  The 
quantity  of  water  can  be  read  directly  from  a  table.  This 
table  can  most  likely  be  secured  from  the  county  agricultural 
agent  or  from  the  State  Engineer's  Office  at  the  state  capitol. 

When  no  weir  is  nearby,  the  measurement  may  be  approximated 
by  measuring  the  depth  and  the  width  of  the  stream  in  a  flume 
or  in  a  straight  place  in  its  natural  bed.  It  is  now  necessary 
to  find  the  velocity  of  the  stream.  This  can  be  done  roughly 
by  measuring  off  twenty,  thirty,  or  sixty  feet  and  finding  how 
many  seconds  it  requires  to  float  a  chip  that  distance.  The 
volume  of  the  stream  can  now  be  found  in  second-feet  by 
multiplying  the  width  in  feet  by  depth  in  feet  by  velocity  in 
feet  to  the  second. 

Note:     This  sort  of  measurement  is  only  approximate. 

REFERENCES 

Irrigation,  Newell. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 

Irrigation  Engineering,  Wilson. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Irrigation,  Widtsoe. 

American  Irrigation  Farming,  Olin. 

Irrigation  Institutions,  Mead. 

Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  Fortier. 

Use  of  Irrigation  Water,  Etcheverry. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  USE 

Over  the  surface  of  the  whole  earth  less  water  flows  in 
the  rivers  than  is  necessary  to  cover  the  land  by  irrigation. 
In  the  arid  and  semi-arid  regions  particularly  the  water  in 
the  streams  is  suflficient  to  cover  only  about  one  tenth  of 
the  land  that  could  be  irrigated  profitably.  The  most  im- 
portant question  before  the  irrigation  farmer  is,  therefore, 
"How  can  I  make  the  water  go  as  far  as  possible?" 

Irrigation  a  Supplementary  Practice.  The  purpose  of 
irrigation  is  to  supplement  or  assist  the  rainfall.  Even  in 
arid  regions,  except  in  the  driest,  the  rainfall  is  of  chief  im- 
portance in  producing  crops.  The  value  of  the  rainfall  has 
been  demonstrated  in  many  places.  It  is  common  knowl- 
edge that  in  wet  years  larger  yields  are  obtained  with  the 
same  irrigation  water  than  in  dry  years.  It  has  also  been 
found  that  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  a  normal  irrigated 
crop  is  really  attributable  to  the  rainfall,  that  is,  by  dry- 
farming  methods  one  half  to  three  fourths  of  the  irrigated 
crop  would  have  been  obtained.  To  save  irrigation  water, 
therefore,  the  rainfall  should  be  stored  and  kept  in  the  soil, 
just  as  is  done  in  dry-farming.  The  more  of  the  natural 
precipitation  thus  stored,  the  less  irrigation  water  will  be 
needed.  It  follows  that  in  regions  of  high  rainfall  little 
irrigation  water  will  be  needed.  In  fact,  in  humid  regions 
irrigation  is  of  benefit  only  in  diy  years. 

The  First  Law.  After  the  rainfall  has  been  well  con- 
served in  the  soil  the  first  law  to  guide  tlie  farmer  in  the 
application  of  irrigation  water  is  that  ''the  crop-producing 
power  of  each  unit  of  irrigation  water  diminishes  as  the  total 
quantity  of  water  used  is  increased.**    This  law  means  that, 

134 


QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  USE 


135 


if  5  inches  of  water  produced  38  bushels  of  wheat,  10  inches 
would  not  produce  twice  as  much.  In  fact  in  a  long  series 
of  experiments  it  was  found  that  5  inches  of  water  produced 
nearly  38  bushels  of  wheat,  but  50  inches  or  ten  times  as 
much  water  produced  only  about  49  bushels — a  gain  of 
about  11  bushels  for  50  inches  of  water.  The  following 
table  shows  some  of  the  results  obtained  in  experiments : 


TABLE  VII. — Yields  of  Dry  Matter,  in  Pounds  per  Acre  with  Vary- 
ing Quantities  of  Water.  (Utah  Results.)  (Rainfall  and  Soil 
Water  =  13.74   inches.) 


Inches  of  Water 
Applied 

Wheat 

Corn 

Sugar  Beets 

Potatoes 

50 

4,969 
5,545 
6,684 
6,279 

6,080 

8,053 

8,636 
10,076 

2,310 

7.5 
10.0 
15.0 
20.0 

10,757 
12,762 
13,092 
13,865 
14,606 
15,295 

2,730 
2,925 
3,405 
4,005 

25.0 

6,672 

30.0 

10,271 

3,660 

35.0 

7,229 
7,999 

50  0 

11,528 

3,795 

55.0 

12,637 

As  more  water  is  applied,  therefore,  to  agricultural  crops 
the  smaller  does  the  yield  become  for  each  unit  of  water 
used.  If  too  much  water  is  used,  the  yield  actually  de- 
creases. In  general,  therefore,  where  there  is  plenty  of  land 
and  little  water,  it  should  be  profitable  to  use  as  little  water 
as  possible  and  spread  it  over  the  largest  area  of  land. 

Spreading  Water  over  Much  Land.  In  the  above  table 
5  inches  of  water  produced  37.81  bushels  of  wheat,  whereas 
50  inches  produced  only  49.38  bushels.  If  the  50  inches 
had  been  spread  over  10  acres,  to  a  depth  of  5  inches,  there 
would  have  been  a  yield  of  378.1  bushels  of  wheat.  Where 
water  is  expensive  and  land  cheap,  such  a  consideration  be- 
comes more  important.  Similar  calculations  may  be  made 
for  the  other  crops  in  the  above  table,  and  on  the  basis  of 


136 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


the  cost  of  production  the  most  profitable  quantity  of  water 
to  use  may  be  calculated  for  each  crop. 

Water  and  Crop  Development  and  Quality.  Changing 
the  quantity  of  water  used  does  not  alone  affect  the  total 
yield  of  crop.  The  development  of  the  crop  is  powerfully 
affected  by  the  quantity  of  water  used.     The  proportion  of 


Effects  of  heaf/^e  nf5  on  yield  of  shellei}  corn 


r    IC    20'    50'    W 


i£± 


JU- 


ZUL 


Uja. 


If  fed  of  irngalion 


0     31    lOT 


of  rr)anure 


Figure  35. — The  effect  of  varying  quantities  of  water  and  manure  on  the  yield 

of  corn. 

roots  in  a  plant  becomes  smaller  as  water  is  increased.  A 
somewhat  dry  soil  is  rather  better  filled  with  roots  than  is 
a  wet  one.  The  general  vigor  of  the  plant  depends  on  the 
condition  of  the  roots,  and  a  medium  supply  of  water  will 
furnish  the  best  root  development.  The  seed-bearing  stalks, 
the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  the  plant  are  most  favorably 
affected  by  medium  quantities  of  water.  In  all  grain  crops 
the  proportion  of  grain  goes  down  as  the  irrigation  water  is 
increased,  that  is,  with  much  water  straw  is  produced  at  the 


QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  USE 


137 


expense  of  grain.  For  example,  the  proportion  of  grain  in 
wheat  falls  from  44  to  33  per  cent  as  the  water  is  increased; 
in  oats  from  65  to  58  per  cent;  in  barley,  from  51  to  38  per 
cent  and  in  corn,  from  52  to  44  per  cent. 

The  chemical  composition  of  crops  is  also  affected  by  the 
quantity  of  water  .used.     The  per  cent  of  gluten  in  wheat 


E^retV 

o\ 

treat\v\eY\\ 

01\ 

V\^\€\d 

o\  h 

viLsHs 

0*       5*      10'     20'     30'    40' 

0      5T      I5T 

/500              1 

— 

1 

— 

in 

7S0 

— 

1 

EJfccl    o{    irr\<^a^»on     — 

o\  manvjkfe 

Figure   36. — Effect    of    varying   irrigation    and   manuring    on    the    yield    of    corn 

husks. 

and  the  sugar  in  beets  becomes  smaller  as  much  water  is 
used.  The  color  and  flavor  of  crops  are  best  when  the  crops 
are  lightly  irrigated.  While  some  crop  constituents  are 
favored  by  heavy  irrigation,  most  of  the  desirable  qualities 
of  crops  are  obtained  by  light  irrigations. 

Quantity  of  Water  to  Use.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
lay  down  any  definite  rules  governing  the  quantity  of  water 
to  be  used  for  different  crops.  On  the  basis  of  general  expe- 
rience and  reported  experiments  tolerably  safe  Umits  may, 


138  WESTERN  ACfRICULTURE 

however,  be  stated.  Wheat  requires  relatively  little  water. 
On  deep  well  tilled  soils  73^^  inches  of  water  in  two  irriga- 
tions should  be  sufficient;  on  shallow,  gravelly  soils,  as  high 
as  18  inches  may  be  used  in  4  or  5  irrigations.  An  average 
of  1  acre-foot  should  be  ample  for  the  production  of  wheat 
on  fertile  well  tilled  soils.  Oats  should  not  receive  less  water 
than  wheat;  barley  about  the  same;  but  rye  may  be  grown 
with  less  water  than  the  other  small  grains.  Corn  should 
seldom  receive  more  than  from  12  to  18  inches  of  water. 

Alfalfa  can  make  use  of  more  water  than  the  grains,  and 
should  receive  from  12  to  24  inches  of  water  according  to 
the  age  of  the  crop  and  the  depth  of  the  soil.  Ordinarily 
18  inches  should  be  enough.  The  other  haymaking  crops, 
like  timothy  and  orchard  grass,  need  even  less  water  than  a 
crop  of  wheat.  They  are  cut  only  once,  while  alfalfa  is  cut 
three  times  or  more.  Clover  requires  probably  from  12  to 
15  inches  of  water.  Pastures  and  meadows  should  receive 
according  to  location  from  12  to  24  inches  of  water. 

Under  present  practice  sugar  beets  receive  from  15  to 
24  inches  of  water;  but  the  tendency  is  for  somewhat  less  to 
be  used.  Carrots  and  other  root  crops  should  receive  about 
the  same.  The  more  seed  is  planted,  the  more  water  is 
required.  Potatoes  need  a  good  supply  of  water  in  the  soil 
at  planting  time.  The  total  quantity  should  be  about  the 
same  as  that  for  sugar  beets. 

It  is  fairly  safe  to  say  that  all  ordinary  crops,  including 
trees  and  shrubs,  should  receive  from  12  to  24  inches  of 
water.  This  amount  is  considerably  less  than  is  now  applied 
to  crops.  As  better  cultural  methods  are  employed,  the 
duty  of  water  will  become  higher,  that  is,  less  will  be  used 
per  acre.     Water  has  been  used  quite  wastefully  in  the  past. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  ought  water  to  he  used  economically? 

2.  What  part  does  rainfall  play  in  crop  production  under  irrigation? 


QUANTITY  OF  WATER  TO  USE  139 

3.  Why  is  light  irrigation  more  profitable? 

4.  How  may  water  he  made  to  produce  greater  crop  returns? 

5.  How  does  heavy  irrigation  affect  the  quantity  used? 

6.  How  much  water  should  l)e  applied  in  one  irrigation? 

7.  How  many  irrigations  arc  necessary  for  crops?     Why  does  th's 

vary? 

8.  How  often  should  crops  be  irrigated?     Why  does  this  vary? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  a  half  dozen  tomato  or  other  cans  of  the  same  capacity. 

Make  holes  in  the  bottom  of  each  with  a  nail.  Fill  with  moist 
but  not  wet  soil.  Hang  in  a  row  in  such  a  way  that  the  cans 
are  level  and  firm.  Using  a  small  vessel  (a  desk  ink-well  would 
serve)  add  water  slowly  to  each  can,  noting  how  many  vessel- 
fuls  are  added  to  each  before  water  begins  to  drip  through  the 
holes.  The  capacity  of  soils  to  hold  water  helps  to  determihe 
how  much  water  may  be  applied  to  irrigated  lands.  ne 

2.  Secure  a  deep  can.     Make  holes  in  it.     Obtain  enough  soil  of  the 

same  kind  to  fill  it  several  times.  Fill  it  one  fourth  full  and 
see  how  much  water  may  be  added  before  dripping  begins. 
Empty  this  soil  out,  and  fill  half  full  with  soil.  Add  water  until 
dripping  begins.  Repeat  with  can  three  fourths  full  and  then 
full.  Use  fresh  soil  each  time.  Compare  the  quantity  of 
water  that  was  added  in  each  case  before  dripping  began.  The 
depth  of  a  soil  is  also  a  factor  in  determining  the  best  size  of 
application  of  irrigation  water. 

REFERENCES 

Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  Widtsoe. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 

Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  Fortier. 

Use  of  Irrigation  Water,  Etcheverry. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  263,  Practical  Information  for  Beginners 

in  Irrigation. 
Utah  Station  Bulletins: 

No.  117.     The  Yield  of  Crops  with  Different  Quantities  of  Irri- 
gation Water,  Widtsoe  and  Merrill. 

No.  154.     Irrigation  and  Manuring  Studies,  Harris. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  IRRIGATION 

To  obtain  the  best  results  in  crop  production  the  soil 
should  contain,  throughout  the  growing  season,  approxi- 
mately the  same  percentage  of  water.  To  maintain  this 
condition  is  impossible.  Rains  do  not  come  regularly;  nor 
is  the  water  used  in  irrigation  equally  available  throughout 
the  season. 

Plant  Growth  and  Irrigation.  In  the  spring,  when  the 
root  system  is  being  developed,  the  growth  of  plants  above 
ground  is  slow.  The  rate  of  growth  increases,  however, 
until  the  time  of  bud  and  flower  formation  when  it  is  most 
rapid.  When  seed  formation  begins,  the  rate  of  growth 
diminishes.  The  water  used  by  plants  is  generally  in  pro- 
portion to  the  rate  of  growth,  because  many  of  the  factors 
that  determine  plant  growth  also  determine  the  rate  of 
evaporation. 

As  a  general  principle,  then,  little  water  needs  to  be 
applied  to  crops  when  they  are  young;  more,  as  the  time  of 
flowering  is  approached,  and  less  thereafter. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  approximate  this  ideal,  since  stream 
flow  does  not  vary  with  the  needs  of  the  farmer.  Only 
when  water  is  stored  in  reservoirs  from  which  it  may  be 
drawn  as  needed  can  the  ideal  principle  be  applied.  For 
the  best  crop  results,  however,  eveiy  effort  must  be  made  to 
supply  the  crop  with  water  at  the  right  time. 

Time  of  Irrigating  Short-season  Crops.  Wheat  and  the 
other  small  grains,  peas,  beans  and  similar  short-season 
crops  should  be  planted  in  soils  well-filled  with  moisture. 
They  should  then  ])e  allowed  to  grow  as  long  as  possible 
without  irrigation,  in  order  that  a  vigorous  and  strong  root 

110 


TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  IRRIGATIOX 


141 


system  may  be  established.  Early  irrigation  of  such  crops 
is  seldom  advantageous  enough  to  pay  for  the  labor  and 
water.  If  the  soil  were  well  moistened  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, it  is  seldom  necessaiy  to  irrigate  before  the  time  of 
flowering.  From  that  time  on,  one  or  two  irrigations  may 
be  profitably  applied.     After  the  seeds  are  well  formed  there 


Figure  37. — Effect  of  varying  irrigation  on  yield  of  potatoes. 

is  seldom  any  advantage  in  irrigation,  though,  when  the 
seeds  are  filling  and  shortly  before,  water  is  of  great  value. 

Time  of  Irrigating  Long-season  Crops.  Sugar  beets, 
potatoes,  corn,  alfalfa  and  similar  long-season  crops  should 
be  planted  in  well-saturated  soil.  The  first  irrigation  should 
be  postponed  as  long  as  possible,  until  the  plants  really 
show  the  need  of  water.  From  the  time  of  the  first  irri- 
gation, water  must  be  applied  to  these  long-growing  crops 
at  regular  intervals. 

Sugar  beets,  carrots,  corn  and  like  crops,  planted  usu- 
ally in  May,  need  the  greater  quantity  of  water  in  July  and 
the  first  half  of  August.  From  the  first  of  September  and 
during  autumn,  little,  if  any,  water  should  be  applied,  even' 
if  the  harvest  does  not  occur  until  October  or  November. 


142 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Four  or  five  inches  of  water  form  a  fairly  large  single 
application.  Usually  a  smaller  quantity  is  sufficient  to  main- 
tain the  crops  in  good  condition.  Two  to  four  irrigations 
throughout  the  season  should  be  sufficient. 

In  the  case  of  alfalfa  the  first  irrigation  should  occur 
just  before  the  time  of  bud  formation,  and  another  just  be- 
fore or  after  each  cutting. 


5 

1 

7000- 

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5000- 

woo- 

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- 

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- 

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1 

1 

T»tolwtf»r 

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5 

5 

3 

5 

3 

10 

10 

10 

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13 

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Figure  38. — Effect  of  varying  irrigation  on  yield  of  sugar. 

Fruit  trees  require  a  moderate  quantity  of  water  in 
spring  and  early  summer  with  an  increasing  quantity  as  the 
summer  advances  and  the  fruit  develops  and  the  fruit  buds 
form.  Late  fall  irrigation  of  orchards,  after  the  season's 
wood  has  ripened,  is  beneficial  to  the  succeeding  crop, 
except  in  places  where  the  winter  precipitation  is  heavy. 

Fall  and  Winter  Irrigation.  Wherever  the  rainfall  or 
snowfall  comes  chiefly  in  fall  and  winter  or  in  early  spring, 
fall  and  winter  irrigation  have  little  value,  if  the  land  is  so 
treated  as  to  allow  the  natural  precipitation  to  soak  into  the 
soil.  Wherever  the  wintei*s  are  dry,  fall  and  winter  irrigation 
are  very  desirable. 


TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  IRRIGATION 


113 


It  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  have  the  soil  well- 
filled  with  moisture  at  planting  time,  for  it  makes  possible 
a  quicker  and  more  complete  germination,  and  it  delays  the 
time  of  the  first  irrigation  and  consequently  the  plant  is 
enabled  to  establish  a  strong  root  system.  In  all  districts, 
therefore,  where  the  soils  are  naturally  dry  in  the  spring, 


Figure  39. — Effect  of  varying  irrigation  on  yield  of  wheat. 

fall,  winter  or  early  spring  irrigation  may  be  advantageously 
practiced. 

Fall  irrigation  may  be  applied  to  the  land  any  time 
after  harvest;  winter  irrigation  at  any  time  when  the  soil 
can  absorb  water,  and  spring  irrigation  any  time  before 
planting. 

Methods  of  Irrigation.  The  methods  of  irrigation  are 
many,  but  they  are  all  variations  of  three  general  methods, 
namely,  (1)  flooding  the  land;  (2)  applying  the  water  to 
the  land  in  furrows,  and  (3)  subirrigation.  In  general  prac- 
tice the  first  two  alone  are  in  general  use. 

Irrigation  by  Flooding.  Most  commonly  land  is  fl*ooded 
by  taking  water  out  of  the  main  ditches  at  various  inter- 
vals, and,  as  it  flows  over  the  field,  distributing  it  properly 


144  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

by  small  temporary  ditches  or  furrows.  These  small  lat- 
erals follow  the  high  places  of  the  field,  and  the  water  over- 
flows their  banks,  thus  covering  the  field.  This  is  the 
so-called  field-ditch  method  of  flooding.  A  variation  of  this 
method  is  the  border  method  in  which  the  field  is  divided 
by  low  flat  ridges  of  earth  into  long  narrow  strips,  the  lower 
ends  of  which  are  open.  Each  strip  is  flooded  separately. 
Another  very  common  variation  of  the  flooding  method  is 
the  check  method  in  which  the  field  is  laid  off  into  com- 
partments or  checks  wholly  surrounded  by  banks  or  levees, 
which  prevent  run-off.  Water  is  admitted  at  the  upper 
end  until  the  compartments  are  wholly  covered. 

Furrow  Method  of  Irrigation.  In  this  method  of  irri- 
gation, small  furrows,  leading  from  the  supply  ditch,  traverse 
the  fields  to  be  irrigated.  Water  flows  down  the  furrows 
without  overflowing  and  is  absorbed  by  the  soil.  Next  to 
the  method  of  flooding  by  field  ditches,  this  is  the  most  com- 
mon method  of  irrigation,  and  promises,  at  least  in  America, 
to  supersede  all  other  methods. 

The  furrows  used  in  this  method  are  usually  temporary 
and  made  from  year  to  year  by  * 'markers"  or  "furrowers." 

Subirrigation.  The  application  of  water  to  crops  from 
below  would  be  very  satisfactory  were  it  not  that  it  is  very 
expensive  to  install  suitable  underground  systems  for  the 
distribution  of  water  and  that  plant  roots  move  towards 
the  openings  through  which  water  issues,  and  in  time  choke 
them  up. 

The  only  subirrigation  of  consequence  is  that  practiced 
under  naturally  favorable  conditions.  In  some  localities 
are  somewhat  sandy  soils  one  to  five  feet  in  depth,  underlaid 
by  an  almost  impervious  clay.  Ditches  are  dug  at  inter- 
vals of  a  hundred  yards  to  three  fourths  of  a  mile.  The 
water  flowing  through  these  ditches  sinks  until  it  reaches 
the  clay  bottom  when  it  spreads  over  great  distances  and 
within  reach  of  the  plant  roots.     This  limited  natural  sub- 


TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  IRRIGATION  145 

irrigation  is  the  only  form  of  applying  water  from  below  the 
surface  which  can  be  recommended  at  present. 

Permanent  Ditches.  Whatever  method  is  used,  a  sys- 
tem of  permanent  supply  ditches  should  be  laid  out  on  every 
farm.  Such  an  arrangement  makes  the  farm  look  better, 
and  also  saves  labor  and  expense  from  year  to  year. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  ideal  soil  moisture  condition? 

2.  Why  do  young  plants  require  only  small  quantities  of  water? 

3.  How  should  the  irrigation  of  long-season  and  short-season  crops 

differ?     Why? 

4.  Ought  irrigation  to  be  practiced  in  fall  or  winter?     Why?     How? 

5.  Describe  the  various  methods  of  distributing  water  on  the  land. 

6.  Compare  flooding  with  the  furrow  system. 

7.  Describe  the  conditions  where  subirrigation  should  be  practiced. 

8.  Explain  the  law  of  ^'least  resistance"  as  apphed  to  time,  method, 

and  extravagance  of  irrigation. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Fill  four  pie  plates  two  thirds  full  of  moist  sand.     Plant  about 

200  kernels  of  wheat  in  each.  Keep  two  of  these  moist.  Let 
two  dry  out.  Wet  them  again  and  allow  to  dry  out.  Repeat 
this.     Note  results  for  two  weeks. 

2.  Mark  off  two  areas  of  clayey  ground  or  spread  out  two  patches 

about  six  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide.  Flood  one  of  these. 
In  the  other,  make  furrows  and  add  water  by  running  it  down 
the  furrows.  When  dry  apply  water  again.  Now  let  stand 
until  completely  dry.  Note  the  condition  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground.     Explain  which  would  be  more  favorable  for  crops. 

REFERENCES 

Principles  of  Irrigation  Practice,  Widtsoe. 

Use  of  Water  in  Irrigation,  Fortier. 

Use  of  Irrigation  Water,  Etcheverry. 

Irrigation  and  Manuring  Studies,  Harris,  Utah  Bulletin  No.  154. 


10— 


CHAPTER  XXI 

ALKALI  SOILS 
ORIGIN  AND  COMPOSITION 

Soils  in  which  water-soluble  salts  have  accumulated  to 
such  ^n  extent  that  they  are  injurious  to  vegetation  are 
spoken  of  as  "alkali  soils."  On  account  of  their  method  of 
formation,  they  are  limited  in  area  almost  exclusively  to 
the  arid  regions  of  the  world,  occurring  but  seldom  where  the 
annual  rainfall  exceeds  twenty  inches.  In  the  arid  regions, 
however,  they  often  cover  great  areas  and  are  of  especial 
interest  to  the  student  of  western  agriculture. 

Origin.  We  have  seen  that  soils  are  formed  by  the 
gradual  disintegration  of  the  native  rocks,  which  yield  var- 
ious substances  that  are  soluble  in  water.  In  the  humid 
regions,  the  heavy  rains  leach  much  of  this  soluble  material 
from  the  soil  and  carry  it  to  the  ocean.  In  the  arid  regions 
the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  accomplish  this  result  and 
the  soluble  substances  accumulate  in  the  soil  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  become  injurious  to  vegetation,  under  which 
conditions  we  have  what  is  known  as  alkali  soils.  Our 
attention  is  often  first  directed  to  this  condition  after  the 
injudicious  use  of  irrigation  water  on  the  arid  soils.  A  study 
of  this  harmful  practice  illustrates  the  way  in  which  alkali 
soils  are  formed.  When  water  is  applied  to  soil,  it  tends  by 
force  of  gravity  to  sink  to  lower  levels.  In  so  doing  it  seeks 
the  larger  openings  and  spaces  in  the  soil;  so  water  may  pass 
down  through  the  soil  without  becoming  very  heavily  charged 
with  soluble  substances  from  *it.  When  the  water  evap- 
orates from  the  surface  of  the  soil,  that  from  the  lower  depths 
tends  to  rise  to  the  surface  to  take  the  place  of  the  water 
evaporated.     As  the  soil  water  gradually  climbs  to  the  sur- 

146 


ALKALI  SOILS 


147 


face,  it  becomes  laden  with  solul)le  constituents.  These, 
as  the  water  evaporates,  are  deposited  at  the  surface  in 
quantities  sufficient  to  act  as  a  poison  to  the  plant.  There 
are  numerous  examples  of  this  throughout  Montana,  Idaho, 
Utah,  Colorado,  California,  and  other  western  states. 

Appearance.  Soils  which  have  been  the  shore  of  a  sea 
or  lake  may  also  be  so  charged  with  soluble  salts  as  to  be 
classified  as  alkali  soils.     These  have  been  formed  by  the 


Figure  40. — Alkali  spots  in  alfalfa  field.     The  evaporation  of  the  surface  water  has 
broughtthealkali  to  the  surface.  GrandJ  unction,  Colo.  (Photoby  p].  D.  Ball.) 

evaporation  of  the  water  which  has  covered  them,  while  the 
salts  of  the  water  have  been  deposited  on  the  soil.  Many  of 
the  alkali  soils  of  the  Great  Basin  have  been  formed  through 
the  slow  evaporation  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Bonneville.  The 
two  classes  of  soils  are,  however,  distinct  in  their  properties. 
The  true  alkali  soils  are,  after  reclamation,  extremely  fertile, 
but  the  lake  shore  soils  may  or  may  not  be;  and  these  latter 
are  usually  much  more  difficult  to  reclaim  than  the  former. 
Alkali  districts  vary  from  a  spotted  field,  in  which  only 
a  small  area  is  affected,  to  the  one  which  is  a  barren  waste. 
Alkali  soil  may  have  a  brownish  tint,  appearing  as  if  oil  had 
been  poured  over  its  surface  or  it  may  be  so  covered  with 


148  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

salts  that  it  is  white.  A  white  soil,  however,  does  not  neces- 
sarily indicate  alkali,  since  some  soils  may  be  so  rich  in  lime 
as  to  be  white,  and  yet  be  free  from  alkali.  The  native  vege- 
tation, such  as  salt  grass,  greasewood,  saltbush,  and  shad- 
scale,  indicate  the  presence  of  alkali  in  the  soil,  even  though 
no  traces  may  appear  at  the  surface.  On  the  other  hand, 
sagebrush  and  rabbit  brush  usually  indicate  the  absence  of 
alkali.  The  presence  of  alkali  is  often  first  brought  to  the 
attention  of  travelers  in  alkali  regions  by  its  effect  upon  their 
skin  and  lips,  giving  them  a  dry,  parched  appearance,  and 
often  making  the  lips  sore.  Where  alkali  is  being  brought 
to  the  surface  in  cultivated  land  by  the  injudicious  use  of 
irrigation  water,  it  usually  appears  first  as  a  white  or  brown- 
ish incrustation  along  the  edge  of  the  furrows.  This  is  often 
followed  with  a  growth  of  barley  grass  (foxtail),  which  is  usual- 
ly regarded  as  intermediate  between  the  cultivated  crop,  be- 
fore the  land  becomes  badly  affected  with  alkali,  and  the 
worst  stages,  where  the  salt  grasses  grow. 

Kinds  of  Alkali.  The  main  injurious  constituents  occur- 
ring in  alkali  soils  are  sodium  chloride,  or  common  salt, 
sodium  sulphate,  or  Glauber's  salt,  sodium  carbonate,  and 
frequently  sodium  nitrate.  Soils  which  have  been  the  bed 
of  seas  or  lakes  contain,  in  addition  to  the  above  constitu- 
ents, magnesium  chloride,  or  bittern,  magnesium  sulphate, 
or  Epsom  salts,  and  calcium  sulphate,  or  gypsum.  Where 
there  is  a  large  amount  of  any  or  all  of  the  above  salts,  except 
sodium  carbonate,  it  is  known  as  white  alkali.  It  is  not 
necessarily  white  in  color,  but  is  nearly  free  from  sodium 
carbonate.  Where  there  is  considerable  of  the  sodium  car- 
bonate present,  it  is  spoken  of  as  black  alkali.  It  is  so- 
called  from  the  dark  color  which  this  constituent  imparts 
to  the  soil  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  organic  matter 
of  the  soil.  It  is  very  destructive  to  plants,  tends  to  puddle 
the  soil,  and  clings  very  tenaciously  to  the  soil  particles, 
thus  being  hard  to  wash  out. 


ALKALI  SOILS 


149 


EFFECTS 

How  Alkali  Afifects  Plants.  When  there  is  considerable 
alkali  in  the  soil,  it  may  prevent  the  germination  of  the  seed, 
or  make  a  sparse,  sickly  growth,  with  short  shoots  which 
are  only  scantily  clothed  in  leaves,  and  with  little  or  no  fruit. 
Sometimes  the  plants  make  a  rapid  healthy  growth  at  first, 
only  to  be  quickly  killed  outright  when  the  alkali  starts  to 


Figure  41. — Soil  so  heavily  charged  with  alkali  that  the  only  vegetation  which  can 
grow  on  it  is  small  annual  salt  bushes.  Salt  Lake  Valley.  (After  Gardner  and 
Stewart,  U.  S.  D.  A.  Bureau  of  Soils.) 


rise.  On  examining  the  plants,  *'we  shall  mostly  find  that 
the  visible  damage  has  been  done  near  the  base  of  the  trunk, 
or  root  crown,  rarely  at  any  considerable  depth  in  the  soil 
itself.  In  the  case  of  green,  herbaceous  stems,  the  bark 
is  found  to  have  been  turned  to  a  brownish  tinge  for  half  an 
inch  or  more,  so  as  to  be  soft  and  easily  peeled  off.  In  the 
case  of  trees,  the  rough  bark  is  found  to  be  of  a  dark,  almost 
black,  tint,  and  the  green  layer  underneath  has,  as  in  the 
case  of  herbaceous  stems,  been  turned  brown  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent."  The  alkali  may  be  in  quantities  sufficient 
actually  to  decompose  seeds  and  it  has  been  known  to  de- 
stroy completely  the  hard  outer  bark  of  mature  trees.  Small 
quantities  of  these  same  alkalies  increase  plant  growth, 
probably  on  account  of  their  stimulating  action  on  the  soil 


150  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

bacteria.  If  large  quantities  are  present,  the  alkali  retards 
or  may  even  kill  the  bacteria  which  are  essential  to  maintain 
the  productiveness  of  the  soil.  It  is  probably  due  to  a  lack 
of  these  bacteria  and  the  bad  physical  conditions  of  the  soil 
from  which  the  soluble  salts  have  been  removed  that  the 
reclaimed  soils  are  not  productive  during  the  first  few  years. 
Quantity  Injurious  to  Plants.  The  quantity  of  alkah 
which  plants  can  withstand  varies  greatly  with  the  plant 
and  the  soil.  In  general,  where  the  soil  is  a  loam  or  heavier, 
the  amount  of  alkali  required  to  injure  the  crop  is  higher 
than  when  the  soil  is  more  sandy.  Alfalfa  and  beets  are 
fairly  resistant  to  alkali,  while  wheat,  peas  and  celery  are 
more  sensitive  to  the  salts.  The  following  table  gives 
the  quantity  of  the  various  salts  found  by  Hilgard  to  be 
injurious  to  some  of  the  more  common  plants.  The  results 
are  given  as  pounds  an  acre  to  a  depth  of  four  feet. 

TABLE  VIII. 

Total  Alkali  Sodium  Sulphate 

(Glauber's  salt) 

Salt  grass 381,110  Saltbush 125,640 

Saltbush 156,720  Alfalfa  (old) 102,480 

Alfalfa  (old) 110,328  Sugar  beets 52,640 

Sugar  beets 59,840  Salt  grass 44,000 

Wheat 17,240  Wheat 15,120 

Apples 16,120  Apples 14,240 

Alfalfa  (young) 13,120  Alfalfa  (young) 11,120 

Mulberry 5,760  Mulberry 3,360 

Sodium  Carbonate  Sodium  Chloride 

(Sal  soda)  (Common  salt) 

Salt  grass 136,270  Salt  grass 70,360 

Saltbush 18,560  Saltbush 12,520 

Sugar  beets 4,000  Sugar  beets 10,240 

Alfalfa 2,360  Apples 1,240 

Wheat 1,480  Mulberry 1,240 

Apples 640  Wheat 1,160 


Apples o^u 

Mulberry 160 

These  results  show  very  clearly  that  the  quantity  of 
alkali  which  is  required  to  kill  plants  varies  greatly  with  the 
plant  and  kind  of  alkali.     The  so-called  black  alkali  is  more 


ALKALI  SOILS 


151 


toxic  to  plants  than  is  the  white  alkah  on  account  of  its 
injurious  effect  on  the  physical  properties  of  the  soil. 


RECLAIMING  ALKALI  LANDS 

Prevention.  Land  that  is  known  to  contain  considerable 
alkali  but  not  sufficient  to  be  injurious  to  plants  should  be 

so  handled  as  to  prevent 
alkali  accumulation.  Sol- 
uble constituents,  when  dis- 
tributed to  a  depth  of  three 
or  four  feet,  may  so  stimu- 
late plant  growth  that  the 
field  may  be  very  fruitful; 
but  if  these  same  substances 
are  concentrated  near  the 
surface  they  may  render  the 
soil  wholly  unfit  for  the 
growth  of  plants.  The  ac- 
cumulation of  alkali  may 
often  be  prevented  by  the 
judicious  use  of  irrigation 
water.  Where  there  is  no  underdrainage,  the  water  used 
should  be  only  what  the  plant  requires.  Surface  and  not 
subirrigation  should  be  practiced;  crops  should  be  grown 
which  shade  the  soil.  In  general,  a  method  which  reduces 
surface  evaporation  should  be  used.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  irrigation  water  used  is  not  carrying  sufficient 
alkali  to  the  soil  to  injure  it. 

Use  of  Gypsum.  A  favorite  method  of  reclaiming  black 
alkali  lands  is  by  the  use  of  gypsum.  When  this  substance  is 
applied  to  land  rich  in  black  alkali,  it  is  changed  into  white 
alkali,  which,  as  has  been  previously  shown,  is  much  less 
injurious  to  plants.  Unless  there  be  great  quantities  of 
black  alkali  in  the  soil,  addition  of  the  required  amount  of 
gypsum  to  the  soil  will  render  it  fruitful.      If,    however. 


Figure  42. — An  orchard  being  injured  by 
alkali.  Underdrainage  or  other  correc- 
tive measures  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
entire  loss. 


152  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

there  is  already  a  great  accumulation  of  white  alkali  in  the 
soil,  this  treatment  would  have  little  value  unless  followed 
by  drainage.  Only  a  careful  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil 
can  tell  whether  this  method  of  treatment  will  remedy  the 
evil.  The  gypsum,  besides  neutralizing  the  black  alkali, 
probably  increases  greatly  the  tilth  of  the  soil  and  renders 
the  alkali  more  easily  leached  out. 

Alkali-resistant  Plants.  It  has  been  shown  that  there 
is  a  great  variation  in  the  resistance  of  plants  to  alkalies,  so 
that  it  may  l)e  possible  to  grow  beets  with  profit  on  land 
which  contains  sufficient  alkali  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
wheat  or  fruit  trees.  The  continual  growing  of  alkali-resist- 
ant plants  on  the  land  and  their  complete  removal  gradu- 
ally removes  some  of  the  alkali  constituents,  and  in  time  it 
may  be  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  less  resistant  plants 
can  be  grown  with  profit. 

Cultivation.  Alfalfa  is  quite  resistant  to  alkali  when  once 
started;  yet  the  young  plant  is  very  tender.  It  is  often 
possible  to  get  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  started  on  land  by 
turning  the  top  alkali  under  to  a  considerable  depth,  in  order 
that  the  young  plants  may  become  rooted  in  the  surface 
soil,  which  is  comparatively  free  from  alkali.  By  shading 
the  soil  or  by  surface  cultivation  it  is  often  possible  to  re- 
duce greatly  surface  evaporation  and  by  so  doing  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  alkali  at  the  surface.  The  application 
of  manure  to  alkali  soil  often  assists  considerably  l)y  im- 
proving the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  It  has  been 
recommended  by  some  that  the  surface  alkali  be  scraped  up 
and  then  carted  from  the  land.  This  method  is  of  value 
only  on  small  areas. 

Underdrainage.  The  most  successful  method  for  re- 
claiming alkali  land  is  ])y  the  leaching  out  of  the  soluble 
constituents  by  means  of  water.  In  order  that  this  be  a 
success,  there  must  be  a  good  underdrainage  and  the  water 
applied  in  sufficient  quantities  to  pass  down  through  the 


ALKALI  SOILS  153 

soil  and  to  carry  the  alkali  with  it.  It  is  in  reality  llie  only 
permanent  method,  since  it  is  the  only  one  that  completely 
removes  the  cause. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  alkali  lands? 

2.  From  where  does  alkali  come? 

3.  How  does  alkali  rise  to  the  surface  of  soils? 

4.  State  the  value  of  alkali  land. 

5.  Name  the  kinds  of  alkali  salts.     Describe  how  each  looks. 

6.  In  what  ways  does  alkali  injure  plants? 

7.  How  much  salt  must  be  present  to  injure  crop  plants? 

8.  How  may  alkali  be  avoided  on  lands  not  impregnated? 

9.  Describe  a  method  of  reclaiming  alkali  land. 
10.  What  crops  are  alkali-resistant? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  pictures  of  alkali  spots,  and  of  plants  injured  by  alkali. 

2.  Add  various  alkali  salts  to  damp  soils — a  tablespoonful  of  each 

to  a  pie  plate  half  full.  Mix  thoroughly  and  let  stand.  Note 
results.     Explain. 

3.  Add  a  teaspoonful  of  the  various  alkali  salts  to  water  glasses  about 

two  thirds  full  of  moist  soil  (one  to  each  glass).  Treat  two 
glassfuls  with  each  salt.  Mix  the  soil  thoroughly  on  a  smooth 
surface  or  on  a  small  piece  of  oilcloth.  Plant  ten  wheat  kernels 
in  each  and  cover  with  glass.  Note  how  soon  the  wheat  comes 
up  in  each  case. 

REFERENCES 

Soils,  Hilgard. 

Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 

Origin,  Value  and  Reclamation  of  Alkali  Lands,  Yearbook,  U.  S. 
D.  A.  1895. 

Nature,  Value  and  Utilization  of  Alkali  Lands,  Hilgard,  Califor- 
nia Bulletin  No.  128. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Irrigation,  Widtsoe. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  88.     Alkali  Lands. 

446.     The  Choice  of  Crops  for  Alkali  Land. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
DRAINING  IRRIGATED  LANDS 

That  any  of  the  irrigated  lands  of  the  West  should  re- 
quire drainage  seems  strange  at  first  thought.  The  early 
condition  of  western  lands  was  that  they  were  thirsting  for 
water.  This  conception  is  still  popular.  The  actual  con- 
dition is,  however,  that  a  part  of  the  land  under  irrigation  is 
water-logged. 

Development  of  Irrigation.  The  area  of  irrigated  lands 
in  the  West  has  been  increased  greatly  from  year  to  year  with 
the  progress  of  settlement.  The  first  settlers  upon  the 
streams  constructed  ditches  and  canals  to  irrigate  lands  imme- 
diately along  the  stream.  When  this  area  of  land  was  cul- 
tivated, a  ditch  or  canal  at  a  higher  elevation  was  built, 
covering  lands  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  stream  and  at 
a  higher  elevation.  This  development  of  the  older,  irriga- 
gated  sections  has  progressed  until,  now,  lands  are  irrigated 
from  the  banks  of  the  stream  to  the  base  of  the  mountains. 

The  causes  which  have  led  to  the  water-logging  of  irri- 
gated lands  and  to  the  rise  of  alkali  to  the  surface  may  be 
attributed  to  the  gradual  increase  in  the  irrigated  areas,  to 
wasteful  irrigation,  and  to  seepage  from  artificial  channels, 
all  combined  with  lack  of  natural  drainage. 

The  upper  edges  of  wet  land  are  extending,  from  year 
to  year,  farther  up  and  are  encroaching  more  and  more 
each  season  on  land  hitherto  not  water-logged.  This  move- 
ment of  the  upper  edge  of  the  wet  land  can  be  arrested  only 
by  drainage  or  by  the  discontinuance  of  overirrigation. 

Effect  of  Surplus  Water  in  Soils.  An  excessive  amount 
of  water  in  soils  leaches  out  plant  food  and  excludes  the  air 
required  by  the  plant  for  breathing.     The  result  is  excessive 

I'A 


DRAINING  IRRIGATED   LANDS  155 

evaporation,  forming  of  cold  soils  with  poor  tilth,  and  ac- 
cumulation of  alkali  at  the  surface. 

Soil  and  Subsoils.  The  surface  soils  are  usually  rather 
porous  and  the  subsoils  in  irrigated  sections  are  more  or 
less  impervious  to  water.  Thus  irrigation  water  penetrates 
the  surface  soil  to  a  layer  of  clay  or  hardpan  which  gen- 
erally slopes  toward  the  middle  of  the  valley.  The  imper- 
vious strata,  therefore,  naturally  form  beds  along  which 
the  water  flows,  if  there  is  more  than  can  be  retained  by 
capillarity. 

Wet  or  water-logged  lands  occur  most  frequently  at, 
and  immediately  below,  a  change  in  the  general  slope, 
especially  at  the  foot  of  bench  lands.  Lands  are  less  likely 
to  be  so  situated  on  extensive  plains  than  in  mountain  valleys. 

Drainage  in  the  United  States  has  been  confined,  until 
recent  years,  to  the  humid  sections.  During  the  past  eight 
or  ten  years  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
drainage  of  arid  lands,  and  especially  to  those  under  irriga- 
tion. This  work  has  received  the  attention  of  State  Experi- 
ment Stations  and  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Arid  vs.  Humid  Drainage.  There  is  a  vital  and  fun- 
damental difference  between  drainage  in  irrigated  sections 
and  that  in  humid  regions.  In  a  humid  district,  the  excess 
of  water  is  the  result  of  rain  falling  upon  the  surface,  while, 
in  an  irrigated  one,  it  is  due  to  water  applied  artificially 
or  to  seepage.  Invariably  the  water  that  causes  the  water- 
logging comes  by  underground  movement.  The  source  of 
this  may  be  water  applied  at  higher  levels  or  seepage  from 
ditches  and  canals.  The  water  from  either  source  pene- 
trates the  surface  soil  to  the  impervious  stratum  along  which 
it  makes  its  way,  until  it  finds  a  surface  outlet  or  its  rate 
of  flow  is  lessened  by  denser  soil  or  a  more  gradual  slope. 

In  the  humid  sections  the  principles  of  drainage  are  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  water  comes  from  all  over  the  sur- 
face and  must  be  removed  from  beneath  the  whole  surface. 


156  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

In  arid  sections,  the  need  is  not  so  much  to  remove  excess 
water  from  the  soil  as  to  prevent  it  from  entering  the  soil. 
In  one  case  we  seek  a  cure;  in  the  other,  a  prevention. 

Soil  water  moves  always  in  the  direction  of  least  resist- 
ance. The  rate  of  movement  depends  upon  the  supply, 
the  slope  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  and  the  fineness  of  the  soil 
through  which  it  moves.  In  the  valley  floors  of  irrigated 
areas  the  soils  and  subsoils  are  of  such  irregular  texture  that 
the  ground  water  moves  more  as  a  slow  stream  in  defined 
channels  than  as  a  general  seepage  through  an  entire  sec- 
tion. This  last  fact  modifies  to  some  extent  the  general 
principle  of  drainage  of  irrigated  lands. 

Plans  for  drainage  lines  and  systems  must  have  for 
their  starting  point  a  suitable  outlet.  Many  systems  have 
failed  for  the  reason  that  an  outlet  of  sufficient  capacity  or 
depth  was  not  provided. 

The  next  general  principle  is  to  cut  across  the  flow  of 
the  underground  water.  Crosscutting  the  flow  of  under- 
ground water  corresponds  to  turning  the  water  of  a  river 
or  creek  by  placing  a  dam  across  it. 

In  draining  for  the  removal  of  alkali  salts  the  system 
corresponds  to  that  of  drainage  in  the  humid  section;  that 
is,  water  is  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  artificial 
means  and  after  having  percolated  through  the  soil  to  the 
desired  depth  (three  to  five  feet)  must  be  carried  off  by 
artificial  drains.  The  system  must,  of  course,  have  suffi- 
cient fall  to  carry  away  the  water  and  the  sediment  which 
may  enter. 

If  the  purpose  of  the  drainage  is  to  remove  both  surplus 
water  and  alkali  salts,  a  system  combining  the  principles 
of  both  is  cmployod,  the  removal  of  the  alkali  usually  being 
the  secondary  consideration. 

The  depth  of  drains  depends  upon  the  character  and 
depth  of  the  sul)soil  and  the  character  of  the  crops  to  be 
grown.     It  is  desirable  to  have  the  drains  in  irrigated  sec- 


DRAINING  IRRIGATED  LANDS  157 

tions  at -least  four  feet  deep.  If  the  crop  to  be  grown  is 
fruit  trees,  alfalfa,  or  some  other  deep-rooted  crop,  the 
drains  should  be  at  least  five  or  six  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  depth  of  the  stratum  carrying  the  underground  water 
influences  very  largely  the  depth  to  which  the  drains  are  laid. 
When  impervious  subsoil  is,  as  in  some  cases,  only  one  or 
two  feet  below  the  surface,  the  drains  should  be  bedded 
partly  in  this  impervious  subsoil. 

Soil  water  wells,  which  are  simply  artificial  openings 
in  the  ground,  deeper  than  the  level  of  the  ground  water, 
are  used  primarily  to  determine  the  height  of  ground  water. 
They  are  used  also  to  determine  roughly  the  rate  of  move- 
ment of  the  water  through  the  soil.  After  the  drainage  sys- 
tem has  been  established  these  wells  are  useful  to  indicate 
the  influence  of  the  drains  upon  the  level  of  the  under- 
ground water.  They  consist  either  of  a  hole  bored  with  a  soil 
auger  or  of  one  dug  with  a  spade  and  afterwards  boxed  in. 
The  Kind  of  Drains.  Open  and  covered  drains  are  both 
used.  The  open  drains  consist  essentially  of  a  trench  or 
ditch  dug  to  the  depth  desired.  They  are  not  economical, 
as  they  are  expensive  to  maintain,  occupy  a  considerable 
land  area,  and  are  usually  partly  filled  with  dirt  or  clogged 
with  vegetation.  To  be  permanent  they  should  have  side 
slopes  of  not  less  than  two  lengths  horizontal  to  one  vertical. 
The  brush  drain  is  closely  associated  with  the  open  one. 
It  consists  merely  of  brush  laid  in  the  bottom  of  an  open 
channel  and  covered  with  earth.  This  drain  has  proved 
unsatisfactory  and  expensive,  since  the  brush  soon  decays 
and  permits  earth  to  fall  into  the  trench,  thus  destroying 
its  usefulness. 

The  rock  drain  is  of  two  kinds,  the  loose-rock  drain  and 
the  placed-rock  drain.  The  loose-rock  drain  consists  of  cob- 
ble rock  of  various  sizes  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench 
and  covered  with  earth.  The  placed-rock  drain  consists 
of  a  rectangular  opening  made  by  standing  flat  rocks  edge- 


158  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

wise  on  either  side  of  the  trench  and  laying  another  on  top 
of  these  and  covering  with  earth. 

Wooden-box  drains,  as  the  name  implies,  are  made  of 
lumber  and  consist  of  rectangular  openings  usually  from 
four  to  six  inches  by  ten  to  twelve  inches,  most  frequently 
without  a  wooden  bottom.  In  place  of  a  bottom,  cleats 
from  four  to  six  feet  apart  are  nailed  across.  These  drains 
have  given  excellent  satisfaction  where  the  ground  is  con- 
tinually moist;  but  in  sections  where  the  ground  is  compar- 
atively dry  a  part  of  the  year  the  wooden  drains  soon  rot. 

Tile  drains  are  made  by  placing  in  the  bottom  of  the 
trench  burnt-clay  or  cement-concrete  pipes.  The  tile  pipe  is 
preferable  to  any  other  kind  of  drain  on  account  of  its  greater 
durability.  If  of  good  quality,  tile  pipe  will  last  a  lifetime. 
Although  the  cement-concrete  pipes  are  acted  upon  to  a 
limited  extent  by  alkali,  they  are  practically  indestructible, 
and,  next  to  burnt-clay,  are  to  be  recommended. 

Many  persons  have  the  idea  that  water  enters  a  tile 
through  pores;  but  this  is  not  true.     It  enters  the  joints. 

Precautions.  The  failure  of  many  drainage  systems  can 
be  traced  to  faulty  construction  of  incidentals.  The  tile 
should  be  laid  in  such  a  manner  that  the  alignment  will  not 
be  destroyed  easily.  Sand  basins,  or  catch  basins,  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  ought  never  to  be  omitted.  These 
basins  are  for  the  purpose  of  catching  the  sediment  carried 
in  the  system  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  readily  locating 
points  that  have  become  clogged.  The  catch  basins,  merely 
enlargements  of  the  drainage  line,  are  made  usually  of  a 
wooden  box  a  foot  or  two  below  the  bottom  of  the  drain, 
and  with  the  top  on  a  level  with  the  surface,  covered  with 
a  strong  wooden  lid.  The  outlet  of  a  drainage  system  should 
be  protected  by  a  good  screen  against  the  entrance  of  rats, 
mice,  and  other  small  animals. 

In  constructing  drainage  lines  it  has  been  the  practice  of 
some  to  cover  the  tile  with  straw  or  similar  perishable 


DRAINING  IRRIGATED   LANDS  159 

material.  The  straw,  being  on  top  of  the  pipe,  is,  after  a  short 
time,  in  dry  earth.  It  then  affords  an  excellent  nesting 
place  for  field  mice,  which  l^urrow  from  the  surface  to  the 
straw,  leaving  a  hole.  When  the  land  is  later  irrigated,  the 
water  pours  down  these  holes  washing  soil  with  it,  thus 
enlarging  the  holes  considerably.  A  clogging  of  the  drains 
naturally  results. 

Clogging  of  the  Drainage  System  by  Roots.  There  has 
been  considerable  anxiety  as  to  the  possible  destruction  of 
drainage  systems  by  the  penetration  of  plant  roots.  Es- 
pecially has  this  fear  been  felt  where  the  line  passed  in  the 
vicinity  of  trees,  through  alfalfa  fields,  or  fields  of  other 
deep-rooted  crops.  This  fear  has  proved  poorly  founded, 
since  in  not  many  instances  has  the  failure  of  drainage  sys- 
tems been  caused  by  root  action.  In  northern  Utah  the 
greatest  danger  has  arisen  from  the  penetration  of  the  tile 
lines  by  the  sugar  beet  roots,  which  have  frequently  pene- 
trated the  tile  and  completely  clogged  it.  The  remedy  is 
to  plant  no  sugar  beets  within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  tile. 

Advantages  of  a  Drained  Soil.  A  soil  which  is  drained 
has  several  advantages  over  a  soil  which  is  not,  whether  the 
drainage  be  artificial  or  natural.  (1)  The  drained  soil  per- 
mits ready  pulverization;  (2)  it  is  warmer;  (3)  it  is 
lighter;  (4)  the  growing  season  is  lengthened,  because  the 
land  may  be  worked  earlier  in  the  spring;  (5)  the  rise  of 
alkali  to  the  surface  is  prevented;  (6)  the  soil  contains  more 
air;  (7)  since  the  water  table  has  been  lowered,  the  roots 
have  more  soil  from  which  to  feed ;  (8)  as  plants  can  use  only 
the  capillary  water,  they  get  more  from  a  deeply  drained  soil ; 
and  (9)  as  a  result  of  all  these  benefits,  crop  yields  are  in- 
creased. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  overirrigation  related  to  alkali  spots? 

2.  In  what  way  does  soil  structure  influence  alkali? 

3.  Where  do  alkali  spots  occur  most  frequently? 


160  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

4.  In  what  sections  of  the  United  States  is  drainage  jiracticed? 

5.  Wherein  does  the  drainage  of  arid  and  humid  regions  differ? 

6.  Where  should  drains  be  laid  with  respect  to  water  movement? 

7.  What  is  the  proper  doi)th  for  drains? 

8.  Name  and  describe  the  kinds  of  drains.     State  the  value  of  each. 

9.  Give  a  few  precautions  necessary  to  a  good  drainage  system. 

10.  How  do  roots  affect  drains? 

11.  List  the  advantages  of  draining. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  pictures  concerning  land  drainage. 

2.  If  convenient,  visit  a  drainage  system  that  is  being  installed. 

3.  Add  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  common  salt  to  a  tomato  can  full  of 

sand.  Mix  thoroughly  and  place  in  a  can  with  holes  in  the 
bottom.  Add  water  until  about  a  cupful  has  drained  through. 
Taste  this  water.     Evaporate  it. 

4.  Add  four  tablespoonfuls  of  common  salt  to  each  of  two  cans  two 

thirds  full  of  soil.  Mix  thoroughly.  Add  water  until  the  soil 
is  muddy  and  then  let  stand  in  can  until  dry.  Do  the  same 
with  sodium  carbonate,  sodium  sulphate,  and  gypsum.  When 
all  are  thoroughly  dry,  add  water.  Note  the  quantity  of  water 
and  the  length  of  time  required  to  cause  draining  for  each  salt. 

REFERENCES 

Irrigation  Engineering,  Wilson. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage,  King. 

Practical  Farm  Drainage,  Elliott. 

Farm  Drainage,  French. 

Land  Draining,  Miles. 

Land  Drainage,  KUppart. 

A  Textbook  of  Land  Drainage,  Jeflfery. 

Agricultural  Engineering,  Davidson. 

Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin  and  Buckman. 

Reports  of  the  National  Irrigation  Congress. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  371.     Drainage  of  Irrigated  Lands. 

524.     Tile  Drainage  on  the  Farm. 

805.    Drainage  of  Irrigated  Lands. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
MACHINERY  FOR  PLOWING  AND  CULTIVATING 

The  plow  is  the  most  important  of  all  farm  implements. 
Its  use  dates  back  to  ancient  Egypt  where  it  was  first  drawn 
by  man  and  later  by  animals.  Even  as  recently  as  the  time 
of  the  American  Revolution  the  plow  was  a  crude  affair, 
built  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  village  carpenter  and  black- 
smith. The  modern  plow  hardly  began  to  develop  until 
1830.  Greater  progress  has  been  made  in  the  improvement 
of  the  plow  since  then  than  in  all  previous  time. 

Kinds  of  Plows.  Modern  plows  may  be  classified  as: 
(1)  The  walking  plow,  (2)  the  riding,  or  sulky  plow,  (3)  the 
gang  plow,  (4)  the  disk  plow,  (5)  the  hillside  plow,  and  (6) 
the  subsoiler.  The  walking  plow  is  fitted  with  either  a 
wooden  or  a  steel  beam,  each  of  which  has  advantages. 
The  wooden  beam  may  be  broken,  but  is  comparatively 
easy  and  inexpensive  to  replace.  On  account  of  the  shrink- 
ing and  swelling  of  the  wood,  more  or  less  difficulty  is  en- 
countered in  keeping  the  metal  parts  attached  to  the  beam 
from  becoming  loose  and  out  of  adjustment.  The  steel 
beam  has  a  deeper  throat  than  the  wooden  beam  and  for 
this  reason  is  less  likely  to  allow  the  plow  to  become  clogged 
by  tall  weeds  or  cover  crops  when  these  are  being  turned 
under.  This  beam  is  less  likely  to  be  broken  and  is  not  so 
much  affected  by  the  weather;  but  it  may  be  sprung  when 
the  plow  strikes  an  obstacle. 

Shares.  The  walking  plow,  as  well  as  the  sulky  and  the 
gang,  is  furnished  with  two  general  types  of  bottoms,  the 
chilled  and  the  soft-center  steel.  In  the  chilled  plow,  the 
share,  moldboard,  and  landslide  are  made  of  cast-iron,  very 
hard  and  well  adapted  to  resist  wear.     As  new  shares  of  this 

11-  161 


162  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

type  cost  but  a  few  cents,  it  is  quite  inexpensive  to  replace 
them  when  they  become  broken  or  dull.  They  cannot  be 
sharpened  by  forging,  but  may  be  sharpened  by  an  emery 
wheel. 

The  chilled  plow  will  not  scour  well  in  some  soils,  hence 
the  steel  plow  is  employed.  The  steel  plow  of  best  quality 
is  made  of  a  plate  of  steel  so  soft  that  it  cannot  be  tempered, 
welded  between  two  plates  of  cool  steel.  This  arrangement 
leaves  the  center  soft  to  resist  breakage  and  the  outside 
hard  to  resist  wear.  Shares  made  in  this  way  are  much 
more  expensive  than  the  chilled  shares,  but  can  be  sharp- 
ened by  a  smith  when  they  become  dull  and  may  be 
repointed  by  welding  on  new  metal. 

Plow  bottoms  are  classed  as  general  purpose,  stubble, 
and  breaker.  The  general  purpose  plow,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  used  for  general  work  on  land  that  has  been  cul- 
tivated; but  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  breaking  tough  sod. 
For  this  purpose  the  breaker  plow,  having  a  long,  slanting 
moldboard,  is  used,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  turn  the  sod  over 
in  long  strips,  or  ribbons.  This  turning  over  leaves  the 
roots  in  condition  to  rot  quickly  and  become  available 
plant  food.  The  stubble  plow  is  best  adapted  for  culti- 
vated land,  as  it  breaks  up  the  furrow  slice  and  pulverizes 
it  better  than  either  of  the  other  types.  This  plow  has  a 
short,  abrupt  moldboard  which  produces  the  desired  action. 

The  set  of  a  plow  consists  in  the  proper  relation  of  beam, 
share,  moldboard,  and  landslide.  Manufacturers  see  that 
the  proper  set  is  given  to  each  plow  before  it  leaves  the 
factory,  and  the  smith  must  be  depended  upon  to  restore 
this  set  each  time  the  plow  is  sharpened. 

The  sulky  plow  has  decided  advantages  over  the  walk- 
ing plow  in  that  it  enables  the  operator  to  ride,  causing  him 
much  less  fatigue.  The  advantage  is  still  greater  in  the  gang 
plow  with  which  one  man  may  do  much  more  work  in  a 
day  than  would  be  possible  with  a  single  plow.     The  selec- 


MACHINERY  FOR  PLOWING  AND   CULTIVATING      163 

tion  of  a  sulky,  or  a  gang,  plow  should  be  made  with  even 
greater  care  than  in  the  case  of  a  walking  plow,  because 
there  are  so  many  more  working  parts  to  be  considered, 
and  because  the  efficiency  of  the  implement  depends  upon 
the  proper  adjustment  and  relationship  of  all  these  parts. 


Figure  43. — Gang  plow  with  detachable  shares. 

Sulkies  should  be  conveniently  arranged,  easy  of  opera- 
tion, and  of  good  material  and  workmanship.  A  poorly 
constructed  tool  is  likely  to  be  composed  of  poor  material. 
The  plow  should  be  provided  with  an  easily  operated  foot 
lift  and  should  be  capable  of  turning  a  square  corner  in 
either  direction.  All  wearing  parts  should  be  of  generous 
proportions  and  either  easily  adjustable  or  capable  of  being 
replaced  at  small  expense.  These  plows  are  made  either 
with  or  without  frames,  the  frameless  plow  being  less 
expensive  but  not  quite  so  handy  in  operation  and  rather 
less  durable. 

In  the  adjustment  of  a  sulky  plow,  the  land  wheel  should 
travel  directly  to  the  front.  The  rear  furrow  wheel  should 
be  given  a  small  lead  from  the  land,  that  is,  it  should  be 


164  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

turned  outward  slightly;  it  is  also  set  about  an  inch  outside 
the  line  of  the  landside  in  order  to  remove  friction  from 
this  part  of  the  plow.  The  front  furrow  wheel  is  given 
lead  from  the  land  with  a  single  plow,  and  toward  the  land 
on  a  gang  plow  when  the  team  is  hitched  abreast,  causing 
the  plow  to  travel  directly  forward.  The  horses  should 
be  hitched  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  not  be  crowded 


Figure  44. — Two-way  sulky  plow. 

too  closely  together  nor  should  they  be  too  far  apart,  since 
in  either  case  they  cannot  do  their  best  work. 

The  two-way  sulky  plow  is  well  adapted  to  plowing 
on  hillsides  where  the  land  is  too  steep  to  furrow  uphill. 
As  the  frame  is  wide,  the  plow  will  not  tip  over  under  these 
conditions.  There  is  an  automatic  foot  lift  provided,  by 
means  of  which  either  bottom  is  lifted  by  the  team;  but 
sidehill  work  is  only  one  of  the  functions  of  these  plows. 
They  may  be  used  as  a  right  or  left-hand  sulky,  and  they 
are  especially  well  adapted  to  plowing  irrigated  land,  be- 
cause the  plowing  can  be  started  at  one  side  of  a  field  and 


MACHINERY  FOR  PLOWING  AND  CULTIVATING     165 


Figure  45. — Reversible  disk  plow. 


carried  directly  across  from  one  side  to  the  other  without 
back  furrow  ridges  or  dead  furrows,  thus  leaving  the  land 
level  and  in  good  condition  for  further  cultivation.  They 
also  have  advantages  in  a  dry  country  where  it  is  desirable 
to  follow  the  plow  immediately  by  harrow  and  seeder  to 
prevent  the  drying  out  of  the  soil.  These  plows  are  fur- 
nished with  either  jointers  or  rolling  coulters,  as  desired. 

The  disk  plow  may  be  used  on  certain  kinds  of  soil. 
The  moldboard  plow,  howeVer,  is  generally  preferable,  be- 
cause it  is  lighter  of  draft,  more  convenient  to  handle,  and 
easier  to  keep  in  repair. 


Figure  46. — Taylor  subsoil  plow. 


166 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  subsoil  plow  is  not  used  to  turn  a  furrow,  but  is 
intended  to  follow  the  ordinary  plow  in  the  same  furrow, 
for  the  purpose  of  loosening  the  ground  to  a  greater  depth 
without  bringing  any  of  the  subsoil  to  the  surface.  This 
kind  of  plowing  makes  more  plant  food  available,  and  renders 


Figure  47. — Light  tractor;  one-man  plowing  outfit. 


penetration  of  the  plant  roots  to  a  greater  depth  easier.     In 
some  localities  it  pays  to  subsoil  for  some  crops. 

The  Traction  Engine.  With  extensive  methods  of  farm- 
ing the  traction  engine  has  come  into  use.  Both  steam 
and  gas  are  used  as  a  source  of  power.  Some  of  the  com- 
mon uses  to  which  the  tractor  is  put  are  to  plow,  seed,  and 
cultivate  the  ground;  harvest  the  crops,  haul  gravel  trains, 
draw  road  graders,  pump  water,  pull  stumps,  saw  wood 
and  lumber,  and  haul  farm  products  to  market.  The  trac- 
tor is  better  for  ^ome  of  these  purposes  than  for  others.  Its 
usefulness  for  plowing  and  cultivating  purposes  is  still  un- 
determined in  many  portions  of  the  intermountain  ter- 
ritory, because  there  are  so  many  different  soils.  In  some 
cases  it  is  maintained  that  the  tractor  packs  the  soil  to  the 


MACHINERY  FOR  PLOWING  AND  CULTIVATING     167 

detriment  of  the  crop.  In  other  cases  it  seems  a  success, 
being  good  for  plowing  virgin  land.  If  the  ground  is  soft, 
provision  is  made  by  which  an  extension  rim  can  be  bolted 
to  the  wheels  and  thus  distribute  the  weight  over  a  larger 
area.     By  this  means  the  ground  has  a  less  tendency  to 


Figure  48. — Disk  harrow. 


pack.  Farmers  sometimes  make  a  mistake  in  buying  a  large 
traction  engine  without  having  sufficient  work  to  keep  it 
busy.  Deterioration  and  interest  on  the  investment  amount 
to  considerable.  A  small  tractor  that  will  pull  two  or  three 
plows  will  meet  the  needs  of  the  majority  of  farmers.  It  is 
quite  difficult  to  estimate  the  cost  of  plowing  on  account 
of  the  difference  in  cost  of  fuel  for  different  locations. 

Disk  Harrow.  To  secure  the  best  results  plowing  must 
be  followed  by  the  right  kind  of  cultivation.  One  of  the 
best  implements  to  follow  the  plow  is  the  disk  harrow. 
On  account  of  its  rolling  motion  and  its  wide  range  of  ad- 
justment this  machine  may  be  used  for  a  great  variety  of 


168  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

purposes  and  under  varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
The  disks  vary  in  size  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches,  four- 
teen to  sixteen  inches  being  used  most.  The  disk  harrow 
should  be  well-made,  furnished  with  good  bearings  and  a 
simple,  sure  oiling  device.  Some  disk  harrows  are  pro- 
vided with  a  single  lever  for  regulating  the  angle  of  setting 


Figure  49. — Spring-tooth  harrow. 


of  the  gangs;  but  two  levers  are  better,  as  the  gangs  can 
then  be  set  independently  of  each  other.  To  secure  best 
results  disks  must  be  kept  sharp,  as  they  lose  power  of  pen- 
etration when  dull. 

Spike-tooth  Harrow.  The  spike-tooth,  or  smoothing  har- 
row, is  used  to  fit  land  for  seeding  after  plowing  is  completed, 
and  also  to  cultivate  some  crops  soon  after  they  are  up. 
It  breaks  the  crust  that  may  have  formed  after  rains,  pro- 
ducing a  dust  mulch  to  retain  moisture  and  destroying  the 
small  weeds.  The  best  implements  are  provided  with  levers 
and  quadrants  by  means  of  which  the  teeth  may  be  slanted 
forward  or  backward  or  held  in  a  vertical  position.  The 
teeth  should  have  heads  on  their  upper  ends  to  prevent  them 
from  being  lost  in  case  they  become  loosened.  The  tooth 
fasteners  should  also  be  strong  and  simple. 


MACHINERY  FOR  PLOWING  AND  CULTIVATING     169 

The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  very  useful  on  stony  or 
rough  ground.  When  the  teeth  catch  on  an  obstruction, 
they  spring  back  and  in  this  way  release  themselves.  They 
are  made  in  several  sizes  and  either  for  riding  or  walking. 

Cultivators.  These  machines  should  be  provided  with 
substantial  wheels  and  dust-excluding  axle  boxes;  the  opera- 
ting levers  should  be  conveniently  placed.  Heavy  springs 
should  be  provided  to  assist  in  raising  the  gangs,  and  con- 
venient means  for  steering  are  necessary. 

One-row  cultivators  have  shovel  teeth  on  a  frame  of 
adjustable  width.  One  horse  pulls  the  implement,  a  man 
walking  behind  to  guide  it  by  handles. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  various  parts  of  a  walking  plow. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  the  plow  bottom? 

3.  What  special  benefits  does  the  two-way  plow  offer  above  other 

plows? 

4.  Name  the  different  kinds  of  harrows  in  order  of  their  importance 

as  implements  on  the  farm. 

5.  In  what  way  has  the  tractor  improved  farming  methods? 

EXERCISES  AND  PRQJECTS 

1.  Visit  some  Implement  House  and  examine  the  different  types  of 

plows  and  harrows.     See  whether  you  can  identify  the  imple- 
ments described. 

2.  Find  a  plow  or  a  harrow  out  of  working  condition.     Repair  it. 

3.  Find  a  rusty  plow.     Scour  it  clean  with  ashes  and  water.     Now 

apply  a  httle  oil  and  rub.     In  half  an  hour  or  next  day  rub  with 
dry  ashes.     Here  is  one  way  to  clean  a  rusty  plow. 

REFERENCES 
Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors,  Davidson  and  Chase. 
Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 
Agricultural  Engineering,  Davidson. 

Handy  Farm  Devices  and  How  to  Make  Them,  Cobleigh. 
Fertility  of  the  Land,  Roberts. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I. 
Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 
Power  and  the  Plow,  Ellis  and  Rumely. 
Machinery  Catalogues, 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
MACHINERY  FOR  SEEDING  AND  HARVESTING 

Seeds  are  commonly  planted  either  by  a  seeder  or  a  drill. 
The  seeder  should  not  be  used  except  where  it  is  impracti- 
cable to  use  the  drill.  The  principal  objection  to  the  seeder 
is  that  is  it  impossible  to  place  all  the  seed  in  the  ground  at 
the  proper  depth  or  with  any  uniformity  of  distribution. 

Drills.  The  classification  of  drills  is  determined  by  the 
kind  of  furrow  opener  and  the  nature  of  the  feed.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  furrow  openers  such  as  the  hoe,  shoe, 
single  and  double  disk  openers.  For  most  purposes  the 
single  disk  is  the  best.  It  will  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  greater 
depth,  is  not  so  readily  clogged  by  brush,  has  fewer  working 
parts,  and  is  less  expensive.  There  are,  however,  several 
types  of  double  disk  on  the  market  that  are  very  successful. 
The  double  disk  has  no  side  draft  and  is  efficient  for  clean, 
well-prepared  ground. 

Following  behind  the  furrow  opener  is  a  covering  device. 
The  press  wheels  seem  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose,  especially  for  fall  grain.  One  objection  to  this 
type  is  that  uniform  pressure  is  not  always  exerted.  Another 
is  that  in  some  lands  the  press  wheels  pack  the  soil  and  cause 
rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  surface.  A  chain 
attached  to  the  furrow  opener  is  a  good  covering  device 
for  moist  soils,  but  is  not  generally  satisfactory  for  the  soils 
in  climates  of  limited  rainfall. 

Drills  are  equipped  with  one  of  two  types  of  feeds,  the 
external  or  internal  feed.  The  former  is  used  more  than  the 
latter.  The  amount  of  seed  sown  in  the  external  feed  is 
determined  by  the  size  of  the  opening.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  internal  feed  the  amount  of  seed  sown  is  determined 
by  the  speed  of  the  cup  ring  regulated  by  a  change  of  gears. 


MACHINERY   FOR   SEEDING   AND   HARVESTING 


171 


Mower.  The  mower  consists  of  a  cutting  mechanism 
made  up  of  a  reciprocating  tooth  knife,  or  sickle,  driving 
wheels,  gearing  to  impart  proper  speed  to  the  knife,  and 
outside  and  inside  dividers  to  keep  the  cut  grass  in  proper 

position.  The  knife  slides 
between  guards  and  is  driven 
by  a  pitman  rod  operated  by 
a  crank.  It  is  very  necessary 
that  provision  be  made  to  ad- 
just  the  worn  parts  to  keep 
the  mower  in  perfect  working 
order.  Most  mowers  are  now 
provided  with  a  foot  lift  by 
means  of  which  the  cutter 
bar  may  be  hfted  over  ob- 
structions and  the  horses- 
relieved  while  turning  cor- 
ners. In  some  machines  the 
bar  may  be  lifted  vertically  a 
foot  or  more  and  automatic- 
ally thrown  out  of  gear  and 
again  put  in  gear  when  the 
bar  is  lowered  to  its  working 
position.  Figure  50  shows 
such  a  lifting  mechanism.  In  order  to  do  satisfactory  work 
the  knives  must  be  kept  sharp.  A  proper  knife  grinder  is 
shown  in  Figure  51.  The  two-horse  mower  is  the  most  com- 
mon size  and  has  a  cutter  bar  from  four  and  a  half  to  eight 
feet  in  length.  One  of  these  machines  is  capable  of  cutting 
from  eight  to  fifteen  acres  per  day.  The  most  essential 
features  of  a  mower  are  accessibility  for  repair  and  provision 
to  take  up  the  wear  in  the  various  parts. 

Rake.  There  are  several  types  of  rakes  on  the  market. 
Each  works  successfully  for  certain  kinds  of  duty.  The  most 
common  is  the  sulky  rake,  varying  from  eight  to  twelve 


Figure  50. — Lifting    mechanism  of  the 
mower. 


172 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  51. — Knife  grinder. 


feet  in  width.  The 
side-delivery  rake  is 
used  to  advantage  with 
the  hay  loader.  The 
parts  subject  to  sever- 
est shock  and  wear  are 
the  teeth  and  wheel 
boxes.  Figure 52 shows 
a  mower,  side-delivery 
rake  and  a  hay  loader. 
Binder.  The  binder  is  one  of  the  most  complicated 
machines  among  the  many  farm  implements.  The  multi- 
plicity of  parts  makes  it  essential  that  the  various  opera- 
tions occur  at  the  right  time.  The  binder  has  a  main  driv- 
ing wheel,  gearing  for  power  transmission,  a  cutter  bar,  a 
reel  to  gather  the  grain  and  place  it  on  the  platform,  and 
canvas  elevators  to  carry  the  cut  grain  to  the  binder  attach- 
ment where  it  is  gathered  into  bundles  and  tied. 

The  most  important  of  all  these  parts  is  the  binder 
attachment.  The  success  of  this  part  determines  to  a  large 
extent  the  success  of  the  implement.  The  knotter  of  this 
attachment  very  often  gives  trouble  on  account  of  Its  being 
improperly  timed.     Figure  57  shows  a  binder  attachment; 


Figure  52. — Modern  haying  machined  in  operation. 


MACHINERY  FOR  SEEDING  AND  HARVESTING       173 


Figure  63 — New  Ideal  binder 

figures  55  and  56  illustrate  the  knotter  and  twine   disk. 

Header  and  Combined  Harvester  and  Thresher.  Closely 
related  to  the  binder  is  the  header  and  combined  harvester 
and  thresher.  The  header  cuts  the  grain  just  below  the 
heads  and  elevates  it  immediately  into  a  header  box  drawn 
by  horses  alongside  of  the  machine.  By  cutting  the  grain 
high  a  great  many  parts  of  the  binder  are  eliminated  and 
less  handling  is  required. 

The  combined  harvester  and  thresher  is  largely  used 
where  conditions  are  such  that  the  grain  can  be  cured  while 
standing.     This  implement  is  a  combination  of  the  binder 


Figure  54. — Combined  harvester  and  header. 


174 


WESTERN  AORICULTVRE 


Figure  55. — Knotter. 


Figure    56. — Steel   twine  holding  disk 
and  pinion. 


and  threshing  machine.  It  requires  from  ten  to  thirty- 
six  horses  or  a  large  traction  engine  to  operate  one  of  these 
machines.  The  small  combined  harvester  and  thresher  has 
been  so  perfected  that  two  or  three  men  and  ten  or  twelve 
horses  harvest  from  ten  to  sixteen  acres  of  grain  per  day. 
Better  results  are  had  by  mounting  the  stationary  gas  engine 
on  the  harvester  to  drive  the  machinery  at  constant  speed 
and  use  horses  or  a  tractor  to  pull  the  machine. 

Haystackers.  No  piece  of  machinery  is  so  diversified  in 
make  as  is  the  haystacker.  Each  section  of  the  country  has 
its  own  pecuHar  type  of  stackers.  The  kind  of  hay,  the 
dryness  of  the  soil,  and  location  of  the  haystack,  are  factors 
that  should  determine  to  a  large  extent  the  kind  of  stacker 
used.  Many  of  those  used  to-day  are  homemade  and  serve 
their  purpose   well.     There  are,   however,   some   patented 

stackers  that  are 
giving  good  results. 
The  essential  re- 
quirement of  a  good 
stacker  is  that  it 
^mm  I  ^^■■^■■i^HHM  shall  be  possible  to 
Binding  attachment.  put  the  hay  In  any 


MACHINERY   FOR   SEEDING  AND   HARVESTING       175 

part  of  the  stack  in  a  short  interval  of  time  and  raise  the  hay 
to  a  height  of  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  feet.  The  hayfork 
or  nets  and  wagon  with  a  hay  loader  are  used  successfully  in 
case  there  is  a  long  haul.  Where  the  hay  is  stacked  in  the 
field  the  sweep  rakes  and  swinging  stacker  make  a  good  com- 
bination. The  latter  method  seems  to  afford  the  most  rapid 
method  of  putting  up  hay. 


Figure  58. — Threshing  machine. 

Wagons.  The  wagon  is  the  most  universally  used  im- 
plement on  the  farm.  On  account  of  this  fact,  perhaps, 
there  are  more  styles  of  this  implement  than  any  other. 
The  greatest  variation  exists  in  the  height  of  wheel  and  the 
width  of  tire.  Manufacturers  are,  therefore,  compelled  to 
make  a  great  many  sizes  of  wheels  and  keep  them  in  stock  in 
the  jobbing  houses.  This  condition  necessarily  increases  the 
cost  of  the  wagon.  Better  results  would  be  obtained  if  the 
farmer  would  use  wider  tires.  A  wagon  manufacturer 
recently  made  the  following  comment  concerning  standard- 
ization of  wagons:  ''Wide  tires  on  all  wagons  will  mean 
better  roads,  the  hauUng  of  heavier  loads  with  less  power, 
less  wear  and  tear  on  the  wagons,  team,  and  equipment, 
besides  saving  of  time  required  to  market  the  farmer's 
product.  This  matter  of  time  alone  is  getting  to  be  a  tremen- 
dous factor  to  the  farmer,  owing  to  the  scarcity  and  the 
high  prices  of  farm  labor/' 


176 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Beet  Digger.  The  beet  digger  is  used  mainly  in  the 
digging  of  sugar  beets.  As  it  must  run  deep  enough  not  to 
injure  the  beets,  it  must  be  strong  and  well-made.  To  avoid 
breaking  the  beam  a  draft  rod  is  provided  which  is  attached 
directly  to  the  standard.     This  rod  is  raised  or  lowered  to 


figure  69. — Good  wagon  and  team. 

vary  the  depth  of  working.  The  front  of  the  standard  as 
well  as  the  share  should  be  kept  sharp.  If  they  are  not  sharp, 
the  draft  of  the  implement  is  greatly  increased.  The  im- 
plement most  needed  in  many  sections  at  this  time  is  a 
successful  beet  digger  and  topper.  Such  an  implement 
would  materially  decrease  the  cost  of  raising  beets. 

Potato  Digger,  The  potato  digger  has  become  a  very  use- 
ful tool  where  potatoes  are  grown  on  a  commercial  basis. 
They  are  often  plowed  out  with  a  common  plow,  which 
leaves  them  in  a  poor  position  for  those  who  pick  them  up, 
and  many  of  the  potatoes  are  often  covered  and  left  in  the 
field.  The  digger  is  very  often  provided  with  a  vibrating 
rack  which  receives  the  potatoes  as  they  come  from  the 


MACHINERY  FOR   SEEDING  AND  HARVESTING       177 

ground,  shakes  them  free  from  dirt,  and  deposits  them  in  a 
row  on  the  ground.  A  gauge  wheel  regulates  the  depth. 
In  the  rear  of  the  gauge  wheel  is  a  weed  fender  used  to  sep- 
arate the  weeds  and  vines.  Some  farmers  cut  the  weeds 
and  vines  and  remove  them  from  the  land  before  digging  is 
commenced.  Another  type  of  potato  digger  is  used  where 
these  tubers  are  grown  on  a  very  large  scale.  This  machine 
digs  the  potatoes,  shakes  them  clean,  and  delivers  them 
into  a  wagon  box. 

Fanning  Mill.  To  prevent  weeds  from  growing  on  the 
land,  and  to  give  seeding  machinery  the  greatest  efficiency, 
it  is  necessary  to  separate  grain  mechanically  into  its  several 
classes.  This  work  can  be  accomplished  very  successfully 
by  the  use  of  a  fanning  mill.  The  essential  feature  of  a  mill 
consists  in  feeding  the  grain  to  a  series  of  oscillating  sieves 
in  the  presence  of  an  air  blast.  The  blast  of  air  separates 
all  dust  and  finer  particles  from  the  grain.  The  sieves  with 
different  sized  mesh  separate  the  grains  into  several  grades 
according  to  their  size,  shape,  and  weight.  In  some  in- 
stances it  may  be  necessary  to  use  two  or  three  kinds  of 
mills  to  get  the  desired  results  or  to  pass  the  grain  or  parts  of 
it  through  the  same  mill  two  or  three  times.  Too  little 
attention  is  paid  by  the  average  farmer  to  the  possibilities 
of  this  machine. 

Pumps.  Many  different  types  of  pumps  are  used  about 
the  farm  to-day.  Force  pumps  are  especially  adapted  for 
domestic  purposes.  For  irrigation  purposes,  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  raise  a  large  quantity  df  water  with  a  small  lift,  the 
centrifugal  pump  is  best.  The  latter  type  of  pump  is  made 
with  a  vertical  or  horizontal  shaft. 

Power  on  the  Farm.  With  the  use  of  modern  machinery 
on  the  farm  has  come  the  introduction  of  farm  motors. 
The  extension  of  electric  power  plant  lines  and  the  low  cost 
of  electric  power  are  making  it  possible  to  use  electricit}^ 
for  many  purposes  i\'ith  profit  on  the  farm.     Feed  grinders, 

12— 


178 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  60. — Threshing  by  power. 


water  pumps,  fanning  mills,  bone  grinders,  alfalfa  mills,  milk- 
ing machinery,  and  many  other  farm  machines  may  be  oper- 
ated by  gasoline  or  electric  motors.  Much  drudgery  is  elim- 
inated by  the  use  of  a  small  motor,  to  operate  such  home 
devices  as  the  sewing  machine,  washing  machine,  wringer, 
vacuum  cleaner,  churn,  and  ice  cream  freezer.  Either  gas- 
oline engines  or  electric  motors  may  be  used. 

The  Automobile.     The  time  has  arrived  when,  under 
some  circumstances,  the  automobile  is  a  necessity.     It  is 


Figure  61. — Caterpillar  tractor. 


MACHINERY  FOR   SEEDING  AND   HARVESTII^G       179 


true  that  in  many  cases  if;  is  a  luxury,  but  in  the  business 
world  it  has  come  to  stay  and  its  abandonment  would  be  a 
great  setback  to  civilization.  It  is  being  used  in  all  phases 
of  agricultural  work  to-day.  The  price  is  such  that  it  is 
possible  for  the  well-to-do  farmer  to  buy  an  automobile  and 


Figure  62. — Farm  power  plant. 

use  it  to  advantage.  The  automobile  is  being  used  a  great 
deal  to  overcome  waste  of  time  and  add  convenience  and 
comforts  to  the  home. 

Care  of  Farm  Machinery.  A  rather  large  percentage  of 
the  farmer's  annual  income  is  spent  for  machinery  to  do 
farm  work.  Much  of  this  machinery  is  replaced  several 
years  before  its  real  life  would  justify.  In  such  cases  poor 
care,  lack  of  adjustment,  or  replacement  of  parts  is  invari- 
ably the  cause.  Too  many  farmers  have  for  their  machine 
shed  the  open  heavens.  Sometimes  a  machine  is  thrown 
away  and  a  new  one  is  purchased,  when  by  replacing  a  few 
of  the  worn  parts  the  machine  might  be  made  as  good  as  new. 

An  application  of  a  coat  of  paint  to  the  wood  and  station- 
ary metal  parts  of  a  machine  and  a  little  lubricating  oil  to 


180  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

pinions,  axles,  and  levers  will  often  improve  the  looks  and 
prolong  the  life  of  a  machine.  When  a  plow  is  not  in  use, 
the  polished  surfaces  should  be  coated  with  grease  suffi- 
ciently hard  to  insure  its  not  running  off;  the  other  parts 
should  be  kept  well  painted. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  the  dropping  of  seed  in  the  drill  regulated? 

2.  How  wide  a  swath  can  be  cut  with  a  mower?     A  binder?     What 

parts  of  the  mower  are  likely  to  give  way  first? 

3.  How  is  it  possible  to  cut  and  thresh  grain  in  one  operation? 

4.  Describe  a  method  of  stacking  hay. 

5.  Of  what  benefit  is  the  fanning  mill  to  the  farmer?    Enumerate 

the  various  steps  employed  in  a  fanning  operation. 

6.  What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  most  beneficial  implement  on  the 

ordinary  farm?    Give  your  reasons. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Trace  the  moving  parts  in  a  mowing  machine  from  the  large  wheel 

to  the  knife.  How  is  the  motion  transmitted?  Locate  all  the 
bearings  to  receive  oil.  Which  bearings  do  you  think  need  the 
most  oil? 

2.  Make  a  survey  of  several  farms  and  find  how  many  of  the  farmers 

have  housed  and  cared  properly  for  their  machinery.  What 
improvements  by  way  of  care  could  be  made? 

3.  Find  a  mowing  machine  out  of  repair.     Locate  the  trouble  and 

remedy  it. 

4.  Secure  a  dull  mowing  machine  knife  (or  sickle)  with  some  sec- 

tions broken.  Remove  the  broken  sections  and  rivet  on  good 
ones.     Grind  the  knife  properly. 

REFERENCES 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors,  Davidson  and  Chase. 

Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 

Agricultural  Engineering,  Davidson. 

Handy  Farm  Devices  and  How  to  Make  Them,  Cobleigh. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I. 

Soils,  Lyon,  Fippin,  and  Buckman. 

Farmers'  Bulletin: 

No.  347.    The  Repair  of  Farm  Equipment. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

GRAIN  CROPS 

Grain  crops  are  the  principal  sources  of  concentrated  food 
for  both  man  and  animal.  They  were  among  the  first  plants  to 
be  used  by  man,  and  the  raising  of  them  has  always  had  an  im- 
portant place  in  agriculture.  Most  of  the  grains  are  produced 
by  plants  of  the  grass  family  and  are  commonly  called  cereals. 


Figure  63. — Wheat  harvesting  in  Kansas. 

Wheat  has  been  known  since  the  dawn  of  history  and 
has  always  been  a  favorite  food  for  man.  Flour  made  from 
wheat  gives  a  lighter  bread  than  that  made  from  any  of 
the  other  grains.  Wheat  is  raised  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
world,  but  the  United  States  and  Russia  produce  much  more 
than  any  of  the  other  countries.  India,  France,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Italy,  Canada,  Germany,  Argentine,  and  Spain 
also  contribute  much  toward  the  world's  supply,  which  is 

181 


182  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

about   three  and   a  half  bilUon  bushels  a  year.     Every 
month  in  the  year  wheat  is  harvested  in  some  country. 

Wheat  grows  best  on  a  rather  heavy  soil  and  is  adapted 
to  a  cooler  climate  than  com.  While  it  yields  heaviest  with 
a  good  supply  of  moisture,  the  best  quaUty  of  grain  is  pro- 
duced under  drier  conditions.  The  most  valuable  constit- 
uent of  wheat  is  gluten,  which  decreases  with  the  increase 
of  moisture  during  growth. 

There  are  at  least  1,000  varieties  of  wheat  known;  but 
only  about  250  of  these  have  any  importance.  These  vari- 
eties are  grouped  into  eight  types.  Certain  varieties  are 
adapted  to  spring  planting;  others  to  fall  planting.  There 
are  hard  and  soft  varieties,  hardness  being  caused  partly 
by  variety  characteristics  and  partly  by  climate.  Hard 
wheats  have  a  high  nitrogen  content. 

No  one  variety  is  best  for  all  conditions.  Each  farmer 
should  find  the  variety  best  adapted  to  his  farm.  From 
one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  are  usually  planted  to  the  acre, 
preferably  with  a  drill  on  land  that  has  been  thoroughly 
prepared.     The  seed  should  be  previously  treated  for  smut. 

The  kernel  of  wheat  is  made  up  of  several  distinct  layers, 
but  there  are  three  principal  parts:  the  outer  layer  from 
which  bran  is  made;  the  inner,  white  portion  which  makes 
flour;  and  the  inner,  yellow  portion  at  one  end  of  which  is 
the  germ.  It  is  from  this  germ,  or  embryo,  that  the  young 
plant  starts  growing.  Graham  flour  is  made  by  grinding 
the  whole  kernel,  while  certain  parts  are  sifted  out  to  make 
the  various  grades  of  white  flour.  The  by-products  of  mill- 
ing, such  as  bran,  are  used  almost  entirely  as  stock  feed. 

Com,  first  grown  in  America,  was  found  by  the  Eu- 
ropeans when  America  was  discovered.  It  was  used  ex- 
tensively by  the  Indians  as  a  food  and  is  still  highly  prized 
for  this  purpose  by  the  native  American  races.  It  is  not 
raised  over  nearly  so  wide  an  area  as  wheat, — more  than 
three  fourths  of  the  entire  crop  of  the  world  being  produced 


GRAIN  CROPS 


183 


in  the  United  States,  and  more  than  half  of  the  corn  in  the 
United  States  being  raised  in  1912  in  the  following  eight 
states,  which  are  arranged  according  to  the  amount  pro- 
duced: lUinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Nebraska,  Kansas, 


Figure  61. — Corn  under  irrigation. 


Ohio,  and  Texas.  In  this  country  there  are  about  four  times 
as  many  bushels  of  corn  produced  as  wheat,  which  amount 
would  be  over  30  bushels  for  every  person  in  the  country. 
Corn  is  very  sensitive  to  temperature  changes  and  needs 
hot  weather  during  its  growing  season.  Cold  nights  during 
this  time  greatly  reduce  the  yield.  Unlike  the  smaller  cereals 
this  crop  requires  much  labor  during  the  growing  period,  as 
it  is  greatly  benefited  by  continued  cultivation.  It  responds 
more  than  most  crops  to  liberal  applications  of  stable  manure. 


184 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


and  in  a  rotation  is  suited  to  follow  crops  leaving  a  sod. 

Corn  may  be  classed  in  six  groups:  (1)  pod  corn,  (2)  pop 

corn,  (3)  flint  corn,  (4)  dent  corn,  (5)  soft,  or  flour,  corn,  and 

(6)  sweet  corn.  Of  these,  the  dent 
and  flint  are  most  important,  while 
the  pod  corn  has  no  economic  value. 
These  various  types  have  kernels 
of  very  different  structure  and  com- 
position. The  dent  com  is  the  type 
most  widely  grown  in  the  corn  belt, 
although  the  flint  is  also  important. 
The  yielding  power  and  quality  of 
corn  have  been  greatly  modified  by 
breeding,  and  special-purpose  com 
is  now  common.  The  length  of  the 
growing  season  of  each  district  is  an 
important  factor  in  selecting  the 
variety  to  plant. 

The  time  for  planting  corn  is 

later   than   for   the    small  grains. 

Young  com  plants  are  injured  by 

frost,    hence    planting  should  be 

delayed  till  the  danger  of  frost  has 

passed.     About  a  peck  of  seed  is 

required  to  plant  an  acre. 

Com  is  used  mainly  as  a  feed  for  live  stock,  as  it  is  a  good 

fattening  ration.     The  entire  plant  is  often  harvested  just 

before  it  is  ripe  and  cut  up  for  silage.     Many  important 

manufactured  products  are  also  made  from  this  crop. 

Seed  corn  must  be  selected  and  stored  with  great  care. 
The  best  ears  should  be  taken  from  the  best  plants  while 
standing  and  then  stored  where  they  will  keep  dry,  as  the  ger- 
minating power  of  the  kernels  is  greatly  reduced  by  moisture. 
Oats.  The  oat  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and  widely 
known  of  the  cereals.     More  than  one  half  of  the  world's 


Figure  65. — Loose  smut  of  oats. 


GRAIN  CROPS  185 

supply  of  this  crop  is  raised  in  Europe,  but  the  United  States 
produces  more  than  any  other  country.  Iowa  and  Ilhnois 
are  the  two  great  oat-producing  states  of  the  Union.  There 
are  more  bushels  of  oats  raised  in  the  world  each  year  than 
wheat,  although  the  money  value  is  not  so  large. 

The  oat  plant  is  more  fit  to  grow  in  cold  chmates  than 
either  wheat  or  corn,  and  it  requires  a  moist  soil.  A  shortage 
of  water  will  greatly  reduce  its  yield.  On  the  other  hand, 
poor  soils  may  produce  good  crops.  About  150  varieties 
of  oats  are  known;  only  a  few  are  suited  for  fall  planting. 

The  kernel  of  the  oat  is  enclosed  in  a  hull  which  is  not 
removed  on  threshing.  This  grain  is  prized  very  highly  as 
a  horse  feed.  It  is  also  used  in  making  oatmeal.  In  some 
countries  this  forms  a  large  part  of  the  diet  of  the  people. 
The  grain  varies  greatly  in  weight  to  the  bushel  and  in 
composition,  according  to  the  amount  of  hull;  hence,  it  is 
safer  to  buy  it  by  weight  than  by  measure. 

The  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  oats  is  the  same  as  for 
the  other  grains.  The  depth  of  planting  varies  from  one  to 
four  inches,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
amount  of  moisture  present.  Oats  should  be  planted  early  in 
the  spring  in  quantities  of  from  five  to  eight  pecks  under  ordi- 
nary conditions.     The  seed  should  first  be  treated  for  smut. 

Oats  are  often  raised  for  hay,  in  which  case  they  are  cut 
before  ripe  and  handled  like  other  hay  crops.  They  make  a 
palatable  and  nutritious  forage.  Even  when  oats  are  allowed 
to  ripen  and  are  harvested  for  grain  the  straw  makes  a  good 
roughage  for  stock. 

Barley  is  raised  over  a  wider  range  of  climate  than  any 
other  cereal.  It  is  found  from  the  North,  where  the  soil 
thaws  but  a  few  inches  in  the  summer  time,  to  the  South, 
where  the  climate  is  semitropical.  While  not  sensitive  to 
temperature,  barley  is  more  exacting  than  most  of  the  cere- 
als in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  soil.  It  requires  a 
well  drained  soil  rather  light  in  texture,  and  responds  readily 


1S6 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


to  proper  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  In  the  rotation  it 
does  well  after  a  hoed  crop.  The  time  and  method  of  seed- 
ing are  similar  to  those  for  oats.  About  two  bushels  of  seed 
are  ordinarily  planted  to  the  acre. 


A  B  c  D  E 

Figure  66. — Types  of  barley  heads.  A^Side  view  of  head  of  new 
awnless  barley .  B — Separate  grains  atad  spikelets  of  the  same. 
C — Front  view  of  the  head  of  same.  D — Separate  grains  and 
spikelet  of  hooded  barley.     E — Head  of  hooded  barley. 

Barley  is  grown  almost  entirely  for  malting  and  stock 
feed.  A  high  starch  content,  desired  for  malting,  is  not  so 
desirable  when  the  grain  is  fed.  In  raising  this  crop  the  vari- 
ety should  be  suited  to  the  use  for  which  it  is  intended. 
For  fattening  hve  stock  barley  is  hardly  equal  to  corn,  but 
for  producing  animal  growth  is  perhaps  the  best  cereal. 

The  common  varieties  when  threshed  retain  the  hull,  but 
there  are  a  number  of  hull-less,  or  bald  types.  There  are 
both  spring  and  fall  varieties. 

Rye  is  sometimes  called  a  poverty  crop,  doubtless  on 
account  of  its  ability  to  grow  on  soils  that  are  too  poor  to 
produce  other  cereals.  Notwithstanding  this  characteris- 
tic, it  responds  readily  to  a  good  soil  and  proper  treatment. 


GRAIN  CROPS 


187 


Rye  is  fifth  in  importance  among  the  cereals  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  the  chief  grain  raised  in  Russia  where  more 
than  one  half  the  crop  of  the  world  is  grown.  In  Europe  it 
is  used  largely  for  flour,  while  in  this  country  it  is  fed  to 
stock.     A  third  use  is  the  making  of  alcoholic  drinks.     The 


Figure  67. — Kaoliang  on  a  dry-farm. 

straw  is  too  tough  to  make  good  feed,  but  it  often  brings  a 
good  price  for  weaving  and  packing  and  for  stuffing  horse 
collars.  Unlike  the  other  cereals,  but  few  varieties  of  this 
crop  are  known;  it  is  usually  classified  simply  as  winter  and 
spring  rye.  The  winter  type  is  as  a  rule  the  heavier  pro- 
ducer and  is  often  used  as  a  fall  and  winter  pasture. 

Rye  -produces  a  long,  slender  straw,  which  is  so  strong 
that  it  seldom  lodges.  This  habit  of  growth,  together  with 
the  fact  that  it  matures  early,  makes  it  a  favorite  nurse 
crop  in  many  locahties.  Rye  is  seldom  an  entire  failure, 
although  it  never  yields  heavily. 

The  methods  of  culture  of  rye  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
other  small  grains.  Five  or  six  pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre  are 
planted.  It  has  few  enemies,  the  worst  being  ergot,  a  disease 
of  the  grain,  which  renders  it  unfit  for  man  or  beast. 


188 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Emmer  is  closely  related  to  wheat.  A  striking  difference 
in  appearance,  however,  is  that. the  emmer  contains  a  hull 
around  the  kernel  which  is  not  removed  by  threshing.  This 
crop  has  been  raised  since  the  dawn  of  history,  but  it  has 
not  been  grown  so  extensively  on  the  western  hemisphere 
as  some  of  the  other  cereals. 


EHec\  o(  Irri^ahon  on  ijie\d  of  ^ram  and  stov/er 


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Water     0         J''         tc         lo'         30'         40- 

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■1  Gram                                  1 

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Figure  68. — Effect  of  irrigation  on  yield  of  grain  and  stover. 

Drought  resistance  is  claimed  as  one  of  its  most  valuable 
characteristics  and  it  will  doubtless  gain  a  place  as  a  crop 
for  arid  regions.  Its  methods  of  culture  are  similar  to  those 
of  wheat,  and  its  use  is  chiefly  as  a  feed  for  live  stock. 

The  grain  sorghums  include  a  number  of  crops  which, 
when  young,  resemble  corn,  but  which  produce  their  grain 
in  the  head  corresponding  to  the  tassel  of  the  com.  These 
crops  have  been  introduced  from  the  arid  parts  of  the  old 
world   and   are  now  grown  extensively  in    the   southern 


GRAIN  CR0P8  189 

portion  of  the  Great  Plains  and  to  a  less  extent  in  other  arid 
sections  of  the  country.  These  grains  are  used  principally 
for  stock,  especially  for  chicken  feed.  In  some  sections  they 
are  ground  for  human  food.  Drought  resistance  and  heavy 
yielding  power  recommend  them  to  the  dry-farmer. 

Buckwheat  is  a  grain  produced  for  its  flour,  which  is  used 
extensively  in  making  the  well-known  buckwheat  cakes.  It 
is  raised  in  only  a  few  states.  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
producing  two  thirds  of  the  nation's  crop.  Unlike  most  of 
the  other  grains,  buckwheat  does  not -belong  to  the  grass 
family,  but  to  a  group  of  plants  quite  different  in  form  and 
manner  of  growth. 

Rice  is  eaten  by  more  than  one  half  of  the  human  family. 
It  is  the  chief  food  of  many  of  the  peoples  of  Asia.  The 
plant  is  more  nearly  related  to  corn  and  the  sorghums  than 
to  the  other  cereals. 

SCORE  CARDS 
Wheat 

Uniformity  Points 

(a)  Color 10 

(b)  Size  of  kernel 5 

Purity 

(a)  Trueness  to  type  and  variety 10 

(b)  Freedom  from  foreign  matter 10 

Condition  of  grain 

(a)  Freedom  from  must  and  smut 15 

(b)  Freedom  from  broken  kernels 5 

Hardness  and  Texture 20 

Weight  per  bushel 25 

"loo 

Oats 

Color  (uniform,  bright) 10 

Freedom  from  must  and  smut 15 

Freedom  from  foreign  matter 10 

Freedom  from  injured  kernels 10 

Size  of  kernels 5 

Weight  per  bushel 50 

100 


190  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Corn 

Uniformity  of  lot 10 

Color  (uniform,  bright) 10 

Maturity 25 

Freedom  from  molds  and  excessive  moisture 10 

Freedom  from  smut,  insect,  and  other  injury 10 

Size  and  shape  of  ear,  row,  kernel 10 

Quantity 

(a)  Percentage  of  grain  to  cob 10 

(b)  Fullness  of  butts  and  tips 5 

(c)  Depth  and  closeness  of  kernels 5 

Texture 5 

100 
Barley 

Color  (uniform,  bright) 25 

Freedom  from  odors,,  must,  etc 25 

Freedom  from  foreign  matter 10 

Freedom  from  injiu-ed  kernels 10 

Texture 15 

Weight  per  bushel 15 

"loo 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  is  most  of  the  wheat  of  the  world  produced? 

2.  What  special  qualities  of  wheat  make  it  desirable  for  bread? 

3.  Under  what  conditions  does  wheat  grow  best? 

4.  What  are  the  main  parts  of  a  wheat  kernel? 

5.  What  conditions  are  required  for  the  best  growth  of  com? 

6.  What  are  the  classes  of  corn?     Describe  each. 

7.  Give  directions  for  getting  good  seed  corn. 

8.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  corn? 

9.  Under  what  conditions  do  oats  thrive  best? 

10.  Give  the  chief  uses  of  oats. 

11.  How  does  barley  compare  with  the  other  grains  in  adaptation  to 

climate? 

12.  How  does  barley  compare  with  corn  as  a  stock  feed? 

13.  Under  what  conditions  would  it  pay  to  raise  rye? 

14.  To  what  conditions  are  grain  sorghums  suited? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.     Take  a  wood  block.     With  an  auger  bore  holes  in  it  a  half  inch 
deep.    Cover  with  pasteboard  having  holes  in  it.     Make  a  col- 


GRAi:t^  CROPS  191 

lection  of  various  grains.  Place  some  of  each  in  a  hole.  Label. 
Cover  with  glass  and  preserve. 
Another  method  is  to  put  the  samples  in  small  bottles  and  label. 
The  bottles  may  be  stood  in  holes  in  heavy  pasteboard  which 
is  raised  an  inch  or  so  above  the  bottom  of  the  box  by  turn- 
ing down  the  ends  of  the  pasteboard,  after  which  it  should 
fit  the  box  closely. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Corn,  Bowman  and  Crossley. 
Corn  Crops,  Montgomery. 
Farm  Crops,  Burkett. 
The  Book  of  Wheat,  Dondhnger. 
Southern  Field  Crops,  Duggar. 
The  Cereals  in  America,  Hunt. 
Corn  Plants,  Sargent. 
Manual  of  Corn  Judging,  Shamel. 
Dry-Farming,  Widtsoe. 
Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 
Field  Crop  Production,  Livingston. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
Productive  Farm  Crops,  Montgomery. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  313.     Harvesting  and  Storing  Corn. 
322.     Milo  as  a  Dry-land  Grain  Crop. 

399.  Irrigation  of  Grain. 

400.  A  More  Profitable  Corn-planting  Method. 

414.  Corn  Cultivation, 

415.  Seed  Corn. 

420.  Oats :  Growing  the  Crop. 

433.  Barley:  Growing  the  Crop. 

507.  The  Smuts  of  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  and  Corn. 

518.  Winter  Barley. 

534.  Durum  Wheat. 

544.  Pop  Corn  for  the  Market. 

680.  Varieties  of  Hard  Spring  Wheat. 

704.  Grain  Farming  in  the  Corn  Belt. 

732.  Marquis  Wheat. 

863,  Irrigation  of  Grain. 

885.  Wheat  Growing  in  the  Southeastern  States, 

895,  Growing  Winter  Wheat  on  the  Great  Plains, 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
FORAGE  CROPS 


ALFALFA 

Alfalfa,  or  lucern,  has  been  used  as  a  forage  since  the 
dawn  of  history.  It  was  brought  to  America  by  the  early 
settlers  but  attracted  little  attention  until  about  fifty  years 
ago  when  its  growth  in  the  West  became  important. 


1 

1 

n 

i 

Hi 

1 

B 

^H 

M 

H^E 

Ml 

1 

^^^^^^^ 

^ 

H^'^^^^^HR^i 

Figure  69. — Alfalfa  in  rows  on  a  dry-farm. 

The  alfalfa  plant  belongs  to  the  family  of  legumes,  which, 
through  the  growth  of  nodule-forming  bacteria  on  their 
roots,  are  able  to  fix  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  thereby  help 
maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  It  grows  from  year  to 
year  without  reseeding  and  produces  from  two  to  six  crops 
of  forage  each  season,  according  to  the  length  of  the  growing 
period.  Its  roots  grow  very  deep  and  are  thus  able  to  draw 
water  and  food  from  a  large  area.  In  the  United  States 
most  of  the  alfalfa  is  raised  in  the  western  states,  although 

192 


FORAGE  CROPS  193 

it  is  being  introduced  into  the  East  very  rapidly.     It  is 
raised  all  over  the  world,  especially  in  South  America. 

Alfalfa  is  naturally  adapted  to  a  warm  climate,  although 
some  strains  are  successfully  grown  where  it  is  rather  cold. 
It  requires  a  well-drained  soil;  a  high  lime  content  also  favors 
growth.  Like  other  legumes,  it  thrives  only  in  soil  contain- 
ing the  kind  of  bacteria  suited  to  grow  on  its  roots  to  help 


Figure  70. — A  good  field  of  alfalfa. 

in  supplying  it  with  nitrogen.  Some  soils  have  to  be  arti- 
ficially inoculated  with  the  germ  before  they  are  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  alfalfa.  This  inoculation  is  sometimes  done 
by  adding  pure  cultures  of  the  bacteria  to  the  seed  or  soil, 
but  it  is  usually  better  to  get  soil  from  an  old  alfalfa  field 
which  is  known  to  be  inoculated  and  spread  this  over  the 
new  field  at  the  rate  of  at  least  100  pounds  to  the  acre. 

The  seed  may  be  planted  any  time  from  April  to  October, 
but  it  is  usually  thought  that  April  is  the  best  time  with 
August  or  September  as  the  next  best.  The  quantity  of 
seed  to  be  used  will  depend  on  the  soil  and  climate.  Deep, 
fertile  soils  in  moderate  climates  with  good  rainfall  can 
develop  more  seed  than  poor  soils  in  dry  and  cold  or  hot 

13— 


194  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

regions.  The  quantity  used  varies  from  five  to  thirty  pounds 
to  the  acre.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  prepare 
the  land  properly,  in  order  to  get  a  good,  even  stand,  since 
one  seeding  serves  for  a  number  of  years.  In  planting  al- 
falfa it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  sow  the  seed  with  a  nurse 
crop  Uke  barley,  wheat,  or  rye.  This  method  enables  the 
farmer  to  get  a  crop  of  grain  during  the  first  year  while  the 
alfalfa  is  establishing  itself. 

In  the  dry  lands  of  the  West,  the  raising  of  alfalfa  seed 
is  very  profitable  where  conditions  are  favorable.  Seed  pro- 
duction usually  requires  different  conditions  from  those  nec- 
essary to  raise  the  best  forage. 

As  a  feed  for  live  stock,  alfalfa  is  unsurpassed.  There  is 
no  crop  which  stock  relish  more  or  which  has  a  higher 
nutritive  value. 

THE  CLOVERS 

The  clovers  are  closely  related  to  alfalfa.  They  are 
grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  over  a  great 
part  of  which  they  are  the  chief  legume  crop.  They  are 
much  better  known  in  the  eastern  states  than  is  alfalfa, 
while  in  the  western  states  the  opposite  is  the  case. 

The  clovers  are  suited  to  grow  with  the  grasses  and  fit 
well  into  crop  rotations.  As  a  rule  they  do  not  yield  so 
many  tons  to  the  acre  as  alfalfa;  and  clover  hay  is  not  usu- 
ally regarded  as  equal  to  alfalfa  in  feeding  value.  Many 
different  clovers  are  known,  but  only  a  few  are  important. 

Red  clover  is  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  the 
best  known  and  most  useful  of  all  the  clovers.  There  are 
two  varieties:  the  common,  or  medium,  and  the  mammoth. 
Except  for  size  these  look  alike  and  their  seeds  cannot  be 
distinguished.  The  medium  matures  considerably  earlier 
than  the  mammoth  which  matures  at  the  same  time  as  timo- 
thy. This  earlier  maturity  is  quite  an  advantage  in  hay 
making.    Red  clover  requires  a  good,  well-drained  soil.    It 


FORAGE  CR0P8  195 

may  produce  two  cuttings  in  a  season,  if  the  first  cutting  is 
made  early.  By  the  time  the  crop  grows  two  years  most 
of  it  is  usually  killed  by  the  root  borer  and  it  needs  to  be 
reseeded.  It  is  a  good  crop  to  sow  in  all  meadow  and  pas- 
ture mixtures  for  re-establishing  fertility  of  soil. 

Alsike  clover  is  much  like  the  red  in  many  respects. 
Its  flowers  are  pink  instead  of  red,  and  the  pattern  of  its 
leaf  is  different.  It  is  adapted  to  grow  on  heavy  soil,  al- 
though it  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil  that  is  sufficiently 
wet.  It  is  better  suited  to  the  northern  than  to  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  country.  It  can  be  grown  as  a  hay  crop 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  grasses,  and  should  always  be 
included  in  a  pasture  or  meadow  mixture  that  is  to  be  sown 
on  low,  wet  lands. 

White  clover  is  much  smaller  than  the  kinds  already 
mentioned.  It  rarely  produces  enough  forage  to  be  raised 
profitably  alone,  but  it  is  a  good  plan  to  include  it  in  mixtures 
for  pastures  and  lawns,  as  it  readily  fills  in  space  not  occu- 
pied by  other  plants.  It  grows  close  to  the  ground,  forming 
a  good  turf. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  important  crop  in  some  parts  of 
the  South,  but  it  is  not  suited  to  cold  climates.  In  regions 
adapted  to  its  growth  it  makes  a  good  crop  for  orchards. 
It  is  an  annual  plant  and  prefers  sandy  soils.  An  abundance 
of  hairs,  which  may  form  balls  in  the  stomachs  of  horses, 
greatly  lessens  its  feeding  value. 

Sweet  clover  is  a  strong  vigorous  growing  biennial.  It 
is  a  very  hardy  plant  producing  rather  heavy  stems  which, 
coupled  with  its  strong  odor  and  bitter  taste,  cause  it  to  be 
less  palatable  for  live  stock  than  clovers  and  alfalfa.  It 
must,  therefore,  be  cut  young  when  cured  for  hay.  It  is 
often  regarded  as  a  weed,  because  it  grows  by  ditch  banks 
and  because  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate.  If  kept  from  pro- 
ducing seed,  however,  it  can  soon  be  killed  out.  It  is  a 
good  plant  to  resist  alkali  and  has  promise  as  pasture  or  as 


196  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

a  green-manuring  crop  in  alkali  districts.     Its  use  as  a  hay 
crop  is  increasing  rapidly. 

OTHER  LEGUMES 

Field  peas  begin  growth  in  an  upright  position,  but  as 
the  plants  get  older  they  trail  on  the  ground.  This  trailing 
habit  makes  the  crop  unsuitable  for  pasture,  and  also  makes 
desirable  a  companion  crop  to  serve  as  a  support.  Oats 
are  often  used  for  this  purpose.  The  two  crops  grown  to- 
gether make  a  first-class  forage.  They  are  especially  suited 
to  be  used  in  a  soiling  system  in  cool,  moist  areas,  such  as 
the  high  mountain  valleys  of  the  West. 

The  cowpea  is  a  leguminous  plant  which  is  increasing 
very  rapidly  in  agricultural  importance.  In  the  South  it 
occupies  much  the  same  place  that  clover  holds  farther 
north.  In  form  it  resembles  the  bean  more  than  the  pea.  It 
is  often  raised  with  corn,  being  planted  between  rows  when 
the  com  is  cultivated  the  last  time.  Ordinarily  the  cow- 
pea  does  not  receive  much  cultivation,  although  it  responds 
well  to  it.     One  of  its  principal  uses  is  as  a  green  manure. 

The  soy  bean  is  an  upright,  rather  woody  annual,  grow- 
ing three  and  sometimes  four  feet  high.  In  many  respects 
it  resembles  the  cowpea.  Their  places  of  growth  and  uses 
are  similar.  In  the  Orient  the  soy  bean  is  used  very  exten- 
sively. It  should  receive  more  attention  in  many  parts  of 
this  country,  as  it  is  used  both  for  its  seed  and  as  forage. 
It  has  great  promise  as  a  source  of  oil. 

Vetch.  Two  types  of  vetch  are  commonly  raised,  the 
winter,  or  hairy,  vetch  and  spring  vetch.  The  vetches  are 
used  extensively  as  green  manures  and  are  usually  grown 
with  other  crops.  Rye  and  vetch  go  well  together  and 
when  properly  handled  make  a  good  forage. 

THE  GRASSES 
Grass  covers  great  areas  of  land.     It  is  used  to  fill  in 
where  other  crops  are  not  raised.    Nothwithstanding  its 


FORAGE  CROPS 


197 


great  importance  but  little  study  is  given  to  it  in  comparison 
with  other  crops.  Too  often  the  land  sown  to  grass  is  given 
no  attention  aside  from  that  neccessary  to  harvest  the  crop. 
The  grasses  are  crop  plants  and  should  be  treated  as  such 
by  being  given  the  culture  they  merit. 

Varieties  should  be  selected  to  suit  the  locality  in  which 
they  are  to  be  raised,  and  the  land  should  be  properly  pre- 
pared.    Care  should  be  taken  in  buying  grass  seed,  as  it  is 


Figure  71 — Hay  in  the  West. 


often  very  much  adulterated  with  weed  seeds  and  is  often 
low  in  germinating  power. 

In  the  West,  where  alfalfa  is  grown  so  extensively,  farmers 
have  not  become  so  well  acquainted  with  the  value  of  the 
grasses  and  know  little  of  the  methods  of  handling  them. 

Timothy  is  the  best  known  grass  and  the  most  important 
hay-producing  plant  in  America.  It  does  best  in  the  north- 
eastern portion  of  the  United  States,  but  is  grown  to  some 
extent  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  adapted  to 
a  cool  climate  and  a  rather  heavy,  moist  soil.  It  is  an  easy 
crop  to  start  and  its  seed  is  cheap.  It  usually  produces 
better  for  the  first  few  years  after  seeding  than  later.  Horses 
relish  the  hay,  which  always  brings  a  high  price.     It  is 


198 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


often  taken  as  the  standard  which  sets  the  price  of  other 
hay.  It  is  decidedly  inferior  to  alfalfa  as  a  cow  feed,  and  it 
would  often  pay  the  farmer  to  sell  his  timothy  and  buy  some 
leguminous  hay.  Fields  raising  timothy  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  many  years  without  being  plowed  and 
planted  to  something  else.  Its  sod,  when  plowed  under, 
leaves  the  soil  in  good  condition  for  the  next  crop,  especially 
if  clover  was  mixed  with  it. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  raised  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 

country,  although 
it  does  not  do  so 
well  in  the  hotter 
parts  of  the  South. 
It  is  much  more 
important  as  a 
pasture  than  as  a 
hay  grass.  It  is, 
however,  cured  in 
some  districts. 
Canada  blue  grass 
is  much  like  the 
Kentucky,  although  inferior  in  producing  power.  It  will, 
however,  grow  on  poorer  land.  Its  seed  is  often  found  as  an 
adulterant  in  the  more  expensive  Kentucky  blue  grass  seed. 
Orchard  grass  is  a  tall,  tufted  grass  adapted  to  grow  in 
deep  rich  soils.  It  produces  a  coarse  forage  which  makes 
a  good  feed  if  cut  when  blossoming  begins,  but  if  left  longer 
the  hay  is  tough.  It  starts  early  in  the  spring,  and  is,  as  a 
result,  a  good  crop  to  include  in  a  pasture  mixture.  As  its 
name  indicates,  it  grows  well  in  the  shade  of  trees. 

Smooth  brome  grass  was  introduced  from  Russia.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses  for  the  arid  regions.  It 
starts  early  in  the  spring  and  grows  late  in  the  fall.  The 
hay  is  liked  by  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  It  is  suited  both 
for  pasture  and  hay  production.    On  account  of  its  strongly 


Figure  72. — Millet  under  irrigation. 


FORAGE  CROPS  199 

stoloniferous  habit  it  is  likely  to  become  "root  bound"  in  a 
few  years  and  consequently  should  not  be  raised  too  long  in 
one  place  without  plowing.  In  planting  this  grass  about 
twenty  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  required. 

Redtop  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  hay  grasses, 
though  not  so  popular  as  timothy,  on  account  of  its  being 
unpalatable.  It  is  adapted  to  growth  on  wet  soils  and  gives 
a  fair  yield  on  poor  soils. 

The  millets  are  summer-growing  crops,  requiring  con- 
siderable heat  and  maturing  in  a  short  time.  In  this  coun- 
try they  are  used  almost  entirely  as  a  fgrage  crop,  but  in 
Asia  they  have  been  raised  for  ages  as  a  grain  for  human 
food.     There  is  a  number  of  distinct  types  of  millet. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  legume? 

2.  Name  some  conditions  required  for  the  best  growth  of  alfalfa, 

3.  How  does  alfalfa  compare  with  the  grasses  as  a  feed  for  stock? 

4.  Give  the  conditions  under  which  the  different  clovers  thrive  best. 

5.  Under  what  conditions  can  field  peas  be  raised  to  advantage? 

6.  Compare  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  and  vetch. 

7.  Compare   the  relative  merits   of   timothy,   blue   grass,   orchard 

grass,  redtop,  and  brome  grass. 

8.  What  other  kinds  of  grass  are  raised  in  your  vicinity? 

9.  What  are  the  millets  used  for? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  forage  plants. 

2.  Collect  pictures  of  haying  methods. 

3.  Measure  a  haystack  and  compute  the  tons  of  hay  in  it.     This  is 

done  by  measuring  the  width  of  the  stack,  the  length,  and  the 

overcast.     The  overcast  is  the  distance  straight  over  the  stack 

from  the  ground  on  one  side  to  a  corresponding  point  on  the 

ground  on  the  other  side.  - 

Overcast  X  Width  X  Length 

=  cu.  ft.  m  stack. 

4 

Divide  this  by  450  (if  hay  has  been  long  stacked;  if  not,  500 

cu.  ft.)  to  find  the  number  of  tons.     The  formula  is  expressed 

O  X  W  X  L 
thus:     : '-  450  =  tons 


200  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

4.     Dig  up  an  alfalfa  plant  to  the  depth  of  a  foot.     Dig  carefully  so 
as  to  preserve  the  small  roots,  especially  those  near  the  sur- 
face.    Note  the  small  enlargements  about  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head.     These  are  nodules  in  which  the  bacteria  live. 
REFERENCES 
Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,  Piper. 
The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  Coburn. 
Alfalfa  in  America,  Wing. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  Hunt. 
Grasses,  Shaw. 

Farm  Grasses  in  the  United  States,  Spillman. 
Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 
Cyclopedia  of  Atnerican  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 
Field  Crop  Production,  Livingston. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 
Productive  Farm  Crops,  Montgomery. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  121.     Beans,  Peas,  and  other  Legumes  as  Food. 

164.     Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop. 

318.     Cowpeas. 

331.     Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 

339.     Alfalfa. 

382.     The  Adulteration  of  Forage  Plant  Seeds. 

458.     The  Best  Two  Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

485.     Sweet  Clover. 

495.     Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 

502.     Timothy  Production  on  Irrigated  Land  in  the  North- 
western States. 

508.     Market  Hay. 

515.     Vetches. 

550.    Crimson  Clover:  Growing  the  Crop. 

690.     The  Field  Pea. 

730.     Button  Clpver. 

741.    The  Alfalfa  Weevil  and  Methods  of  Controlling  It. 

757.    Commercial  Varieties*  of  Alfalfa. 

793.     Foxtail  Millet. 

797.     Sweet  Clover;  Growing  the  Crop. 

814.     Bermuda  Grass. 

820.     Sweet  Clover;  Utilization. 

832.    Sweet  Clover ;  Harvesting  and  Threshing  the  Seed  Crop. 

865.     Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. 

886.    Harvesting  Soy  Bean  Seed. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


SUGAR  BEETS  AND  OTHER  ROOT  CROPS 


The  root  crops  are  of  very  great  importance  to  the  agri- 
culture of  the  world,  both  as  a  direct  food  for  man  and  as  a 
means  of  sustenance  for  domestic  animals.     These  crops  are 

especially  valuable  on 
account  of  their  large 
yield  and  their  succu- 
lence, or  large  percent- 
age of  water.  The  whole 
agriculture  of  England 
was  improved  in  the  17th 
century  by  the  extensive 
introduction  of  root 
crops,  and  to-day  Eng- 
land is  noted  for  the  use 
of  roots  in  feeding  stock. 

SUGAR  BEETS 

The  sugar  beet  be- 
longs to  a  group  of  bien- 
nial plants  which  store  up  food  in  their  roots  during  one 
season  and  use  this  stored  material  in  the  production  of 
seed  the  next  year.  The  economic  value  of  these  plants 
depends  on  the  use  of  this  stored  material. 

History.  Beets  have  been  used  for  making  sugar  on  a 
commercial  scale  only  a  little  over  a  hundred  years,  the  first 
factory  being  built  in  Silesia  in  1805.  Germany  and  France 
were  the  first  countries  to  give  the  industry  great  promi- 
nence. Sugar  beet  raising  in  the  United  States  has  been 
developed  almost  entirely  in  the  last  two  or  three  decades. 

201 


Figure  73. — A  good  type  of  sugar  beets. 


202 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Production.  Germany  and  Russia  have  raised  about  as 
many  sugar  beets  as  the  rest  of  the  world  together.  In  1910 
the  world  produced  eight  and  one  half  milUon  tons  of  sugar 
from  beets,  while  the  United  States  produced  but  one  half 
a  million  tons.     Michigan,  Colorado,  California,  and  Utah 


Figure  74. — Yield  of  beet  roots  and  tops  on  plants  receiving  various  quantities  of 
irrigation  water  at  different  stages.     Average  for  five  years. 


are  our  chief  producers  of  sugar  beets.  Utah  leads  in  the 
number  of  tons  of  beets  raised  to  the  acre,  having  produced 
14.54  tons,  as  a  ten  years'  average,  while  the  average  for 
the  whole  country  was  but  9.71  tons. 

Condition  of  Growth.  Sugar  beets  require  a  rather  cool 
climate,  but  need  a  large  amount  of  sunshine  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar.  They  flourish  in  a  moist  soil,  but  can  not 
endure  water-logged  land.  They  are  able  to  stand  more 
alkali  than  most  crops.  Beet  land  should  be  given  a  good 
dressing  of  barnyard  manure  eveiy  few  years.  Greater  care 
needs  to  be  taken  to  get  the  soil  in  good  condition  than  is 
necessary  with  the  cereals.     It  should  be  plowed  deeply  in 


SUGAR  BEETS  AND  OTHER  ROOT  CROPS 


203 


the  fall.     In  the  spring  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  tilled 
and  made  as  mellow  as  possible. 

Seeding.  Planting  is  done  early  in  the  spring,  usually 
earlier  than  corn.  About  twenty  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  are  sown,  although  this  amount  varies  somewhat  with 
conditions.  The  rows  are  usually  about  twenty  inches  apart, 
but  are  sometimes  as  close  as  eleven  or  as  far  apart  as  twenty- 
seven  inches.  *  By  placing  the  rows  closer  together  larger 


Figure  75.— A  high  yielding  sugar  beet  field. 


yields  to  the  acre  are  secured,  but  less  for  the  labor  involved; 
and  labor  is  a  very  important  item  in  raising  sugar  beets. 

Thinning.  When  the  plants  have  about  four  leaves  they 
have  to  be  thinned.  A  block  is  chopped  out  with  a  hoe, 
leaving  little  bunches  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  apart. 
Each  bunch  must  then  be  thinned  by  hand,  leaving  but  one 
plant  in  a  place,  in  order  that  the  beets  may  have  the  proper 
space.  Thinning  is  the  most  tedious  and  expensive  opera- 
tion in  beet  growing. 

Cultivation.  During  the  growing  season  beets  require 
considerable  cultivation.  There  is  at  present  good  machin- 
ery on  the  market  with  which  to  do  this  work.  Shallow 
cultivation  should  begin  when  the  plants  are  small. 


204 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Irrigation.  If  watered  too  much  the  beets  grow  so  large 
and  the  sugar  content  is  so  low  that  the  factories  are  com- 
pelled to  refuse  them.  The  best  kind  of  irrigation  will  give 
the  beets  a  regular  supply  of  moisture  during  growth  and 
allow  them  to  ripen  properly.     An  irrigation  just  before  har- 


Figure  76. — Beets  piled  in  the  field.     The  tops  are  also  saved. 

vest  may  be  undesiral)le.  Water  too  early  in  the  season  is 
also  objectionable. 

Harvesting.  The  ripening  of  beets  is  indicated  by  the 
withering  of  the  leaves,  which  usually  occurs  about  the 
middle  of  October.  Beets  will  stand  some  frost,  but  are 
better  if  not  subjected  to  severe  freezing.  They  should, 
therefore,  be  dug  as  soon  after  they  are  ripe  as  convenient. 
There  is  a  number  of  implements  for  digging  the  beets. 
The  one  to  use  depends  largely  on  the  kind  of  soil. 

Uses.  Sugar  beets  are  used  largely  for  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  but  on  account  of  their  succulence  they  also  make 
a  good  feed  for  live  stock.  By-products  of  sugar  making, 
such  as  pulp  and  molasses,  are  used  extensively  as  feed. 

Seed.  The  successful  making  of  sugar  from  beets  de- 
pends on  their  containing,  a  high  content  of  sugar.     This 


SUGAR  BEETS  AND  OTHER  ROOT  CROPS 


201 


has  been  obtained  by  many  years  of  careful  selection,  and, 
in  order  to  maintain  it,  continued  selection  is  necessary. 
Great  care  must,  therefore,  be  exercised  in  producing  the 
seed.     Until  the  last  few  years  practically  all  the  seed  used 


Figure  77. — Pedigree  sugar  beet  seed  at  Utah  Experiment  Station. 

in  the  United  States  was  imported  from  Europe,  but  now 
much  is  produced  in  a  number  of  the  western  states. 

Rotation.  Sugar  beets  are  well  adapted  to  enter  into  a 
crop  rotation.  They  occupy  about  the  same  place  in  the 
rotation  as  potatoes  or  corn.  On  account  of  their  deep 
rooting,  beets  leave  the  soil  in  good  condition  for  the  crop 
that  follows.  This  is  especially  true  if  manure  has  been 
applied  to  the  land  before  planting.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
plant  land  continuously  to  beets  simply  because  they  pay. 
The  results  of  a  proper  rotation  are  much  better. 

Importance.  In  regions  where  sugar  beets  can  be  prof- 
itably   produced    the   whole   agriculture   of   the   region   is 


206  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

improved  by  raising  them.  They  teach  better  methods  of 
tillage  and  thus  add  to  the  producing  power  of  the  soil.  They 
make  a  crop  which  the  farmer  can  sell  for  cash  at  a  price  he 
can  depend  on. 

OTHER  ROOTS 

Mangel-wurzels  are  grown  extensively  as  a  stock  feed. 
Their  habit  of  growth  is  similar  to  that  of  sugar  beets,  but 
differs  in  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  mangel  grows  out 
of  the  ground.  Mangel-wurzels  can  withstand  drought  bet- 
ter than  the  other  root  crops.  The  method  of  preparing  the 
land  for  this  crop  is  similar  to  that  for  sugar  beets.  From 
six  to  eight  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre.  In  feeding 
value,  they  are  about  equal  to  sugar  beets,  but  they  have 
less  sugar  and  dry  matter. 

Turnips  and  rutabagas  are  grown  extensively  in  some 
sections  of  the  country.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  and 
the  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  storing  of  these  crops  is 
similar  to  that  for  mangel-wurzels.  They  do  best  on  a 
sandy  soil.  Four  pounds  of  rutabaga  and  three  pounds  of 
turnip  seed  are  usually  sown  per  acre.  Early  seeding  is  de- 
sirable. The  yields  of  these  crops  are  as  a  rule  less  than  for 
mangel-wurzels.  In  Canada,  turnips  and  rutabagas  are  the 
chief  root  crops  for  stock  feeding. 

Carrots  have  a  wider  climatic  adaptation  than  mangel- 
wurzels  and  rutabagas  and  do  best  in  a  deep,  sandy  loam. 
It  is  customary  to  sow  about  six  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
although  with  good  seed  and  seed  bed  less  may  be  used. 
Difficulty  is  often  experienced  in  getting  a  good  stand  of 
carrots;  consequently  there  should  be  great  care  in  plant- 
ing. The  yield  is  from  ten  to  thirty  tons  to  the  acre,  with 
the  percentage  of  dry  matter  higher  than  for  other  root 
crops  except  sugar  beets.  Carrots  are  especially  good  for 
horses  and  also  form  an  important  human  food. 


SUGAR  BEETS  AND  OTHER  ROOT  CROPS  207 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  place  do  root  crops  have  on  the  ordinary  farm? 

2.  Give  the  history  of  the  beet  sugar  industry. 

3.  Under  what  conditions  do  sugar  beets  grow  best? 

4.  Give  directions  for  handling  a  crop  of  sugar  beets. 

5.  Why  is  thinning  of  beets  necessary? 

6.  Compare   mangel-wurzels,    turnips,    rutabagas,    and    carrots    as 

regards  methods  of  handling  and  uses. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  the  various  root  crops,  label  and  preserve. 

2.  Collect  a  sackful  of  some  root  crop — sugar  beets,  mangels,  carrots, 

or  turnips.  Select  out  the  medium-sized,  smooth  ones.  These 
are  the  most  desirable.  Place  those  irregularly  shaped  in  one 
pile;  those  very  large  and  very  small  in  another;  and  those 
bruised,  broken,  or  otherwise  injured  in  another.  The  last  three 
piles  are  undesirable. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  Hunt. 

Sugar  at  a  Glance,  Palmer.     Senate  Document  890. 

Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 

Story  of  Sugar,  Surface. 

Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,  Piper. 

The  Sugar  Beet,  Ware. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 

Sugar  Beet  Growers'  Annual,  Sugar  Gazette  Co. 

The  Sugar  Beet  in  America,  Harris. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  392.     Irrigation  of  Sugar  Beets. 

567.     Sugar  Beet  Growing  Under  Irrigation. 

56^.     Sugar  Beet  Growing  Under  Humid  Conditions. 

618.    Leaf -Spot:  a  Disease  of  Sugar  Beets, 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
POTATOES 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  America.  The  Spanish  con- 
querors of  Peru  introduced  it  into  Spain  and  Portugal  some- 
time during  the  middle  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  From 
there  it  spread  into  Italy,  and  later  to  other  parts  of  Europe. 
Spanish  voyagers  carried  it  to  Virginia  whence  it  was  taken 
to  England  at  the  time  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  voyages. 
From  England  potato  culture  spread  rapidly  into  Ireland, 
where,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  crop 
had  become  common.  Its  almost  universal  use  in  Ireland 
since  that  time  has  given  it  the  common  name  of  Irish  potato. 
Ireland  still  leads  in  the  use  of  the  potato  with  an  annual 
per  capita  consumption  of  twenty-five  bushels,  about  seven 
times  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  potato  plant  is  an  annual,  which  in  its  wild  state  is 
reproduced  freely  by  seeds.  The  tubers  are  very  small 
and  woody.  The  cultivated  potato  rarely  seeds,  the  plant 
having  become  perennial  through  its  tubers.  The  main  verti- 
cal underground  stem  varies  in  length  with  the  depth  of 
the  planting.  This  stem  produces  branches,  the  ends  of 
which  enlarge  and  form  tubers.  Usually  from  two  to  four 
roots  start  from  the  base  of  each  tuber-forming  branch. 
Three  or  four  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  the  roots 
extend  for  about  eighteen  inches  horizontally  and  then  turn 
and  go  downward,  penetrating  from  one  to  five  feet. 

The  tuber  is  not  a  seed,  but  a  swollen,  underground  stem 
with  its  eyes  equivalent  to  the  leaf  buds  on  a  tree.  It  is 
simply  a  branch  in  which  the  plant  stores  food. 

When  a  potato  is  cut  in  halves,  four  layers  may  be  seen. 
Beginning  at  thp  outside,  the  first  is  the  external  cortical, 

208 


POTATOES  209 

which  is  poor  in  starch;  next  is  the  internal  cortical,  rich  in 
starch;  then,  the  external  medullary,  also  rich  in  starch; 
and,  finally,  in  the  center  the  internal  medullary,  very  poor 
in  starch.  A  potato  to  have  good  cooking  quality  should 
have  proportionately  large  cortical  and  external  medullary 
and  small  internal  medullary. 

The  Potato  Wanted.  The  market  demands  a  medium- 
sized  potato,  between  two  and  four  inches  in  diameter,  and 
weighing  from  one  half  to  one  pound. 

The  flat-round  or  oval  shapes  with  shallow  eyes  are  in 
greatest  demand;  they  are  of  better  quahty  and  waste  less 
in  peeling.  White,  or  yellowish-white,  skin,  and  white,  fine, 
firm-textured  flesh  are  preferred  except  in  the  South  where 
red  is  favored.  Thick-skinned  varieties  are  usually  preferred, 
because  they  can  be  handled  with  less  danger  of  being 
bruised  or  otherwise  injured. 

Good  quality  in  potatoes  is  indicated  by  the  tuber's  be- 
coming mealy  when  cooked.  This  mealiness  is  due  to  the 
separating  of  cells  or  to  the  breaking  of  the  cell-walls,  causing 
the  starch  grains  inside  to  mingle  together  in  a  mass.  If,  how- 
ever, the  cell-walls  do  not  burst,  but  can  be  easily  mashed 
by  applying  slight  pressure  (as  with  a  table  fork),  the  quality 
may  be  regarded  as  medium.  In  case  the  potato  remains 
solid,  heavy,  and  watery  after  being  cooked,  the  quality  is 
poor.  Where  potatoes  are  planted  so  deep  that  the  change 
of  temperature  between  night  and  day  does  not  affect  them, 
and  where  constant  favorable  moisture  can  be  maintained, 
the  quality  will  probably  be  good,  because  the  even  temper- 
ature favors  the  development  of  starch.  Where  potatoes  are 
planted  shallow  and  developed  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
the  change  of  temperature  between  night  and  day  injures 
the  quality.  Exposure  to  light  injures  the  quality  by  caus- 
ing the  potatoes  to  turn  green. 

Seed  Bed.  Potatoes  do  best  in  fight  soils  such  as  deep, 
friable  loams  and  sandy  loams.     The  seed  bed  should  be 

14— 


210  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

well-prepared,  because  the  growing  tubers  exert  a  consider- 
able pressure  in  every  direction,  and,  if  the  seed  bed  is  lumpy 
and  rough,  they  will  become  knotty  and  irregular.  As  soon 
as  possible  in  the  spring  it  should  be  thoroughly  harrowed 
to  conserve  the  moisture,  and  also  to  bring  weed  seeds  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground  where  they  will  germinate.  Just 
before  the  potatoes  are  to  be  planted  the  ground  should  be 
harrowed  again  to  kill  the  growing  weeds. 

Seed.  If  small,  poor  tubers  be  planted,  the  tendency 
will  be  toward  the  production  of  a  larger  number  of  small 
potatoes  than  if  tubers  of  the  size  and  shape  desired  be 
planted.  The  proper  way  to  select  tubers  for  planting,  if 
at  all  possible,  is  to  make  an  inspection  of  the  individual 
hills  as  they  are  growing  in  the  field,  putting  a  stake  by  each 
hill  which  has  a  good,  healthful,  upright  top  with  a  large 
proportion  of  leaves  to  stems.  When  the  time  comes  to 
harvest,  these  selected  hills  should  be  dug  by  hand  and  the 
ones  containing  the  greatest  number  of  best  sized  and  best 
shaped  tubers  should  be  saved  for  seed.  They  should  be 
stored  and  planted  by  themselves  the  following  spring. 
From  them  enough  will  probably  be  secured  to  plant  the 
patch.     Selection  ought  to  be  made  in  this  way  each  year. 

Before  cutting,  the  seed  potatoes  ought  to  be  soaked  two 
hours  in  corrosive  sublimate  2  oz.  to  each  15  gallons  of 
water  or  in  formalin  1  pint  to  25  or  30  gallons  of  water. 

Cutting  Seed.  The  seed  potatoes  should  be  planted  soon 
after  they  are  cut;  since,  if  the  cut  pieces  be  allowed  to  dry 
out  before  planting,  the  plants  will  be  weak  and  slow  in 
coming  up.  Quarters  and  two-eye  pieces  are  probably  the 
best  sizes  of  sets.  If  cut  into  two-eye  pieces,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  eyes  are  strong,  that  is,  prominent.  The  eye 
of  the  potato  need  not  be  deep,  but  should  be  well  defined. 
A  shallow,  poorly  defined  eye  is  regarded  as  low  in  vitality. 

The  average  acre  yield  in  the  intermountain  region  is 
around  140  bushels,  whereas  that  of  the  whole  United  States  is 


POTATOES 


211 


about  93  bushels.  Central  Europe  has  an  average  of  nearly 
200  bushels,  due  to  a  particularly  favorable  climate  and  to 
great  care  in  seed  selection  and  treatment. 

Planting.    A  machine  planter  is  economical  for  large 
acreages;  but,  when  only  small  patches  are  grown,  hand 


Figure  78. — A  potato  planter  at  work. 

planting  is  the  most  practical  way.  The  furrows  for  plant- 
ing should  be  made  while  the  seed  potatoes  are  drying  after 
being  treated  for  disease.  Straight  furrows  are  opened  with  a 
shovel  plow,  the  potatoes  dropped  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
covered  with  moist  soil.  Covering  may  be  done  with  a 
leveler,  followed  by  a  harrow.  Potatoes  should  be  planted 
in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  apart  in  the  row. 

The  depth  of  planting  will  depend  on  soil,  moisture,  and 
cultural  methods.  The  new  tubers  should  develop  where 
they  can  get  sufficient  air  and  moisture  to  make  a  maximum 
development.  In  a  Hght  soil,  this  depth  will  probably  be 
between  four  and  seven  inches  while  on  a  heavier  soil  it  may 
be  between  three  and  five  inches.     Deep  planting  produces 


•  212  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

better  quality  and  a  larger  percentage  of  marketable  potatoes. 
Planting  should  be  deeper  in  dry  thaii  in  wet  soils,  and  in 
loose  than  in  compact  ones. 

Cultivation.  After  the  potatoes  are  planted  the  land 
should  be  thoroughly  harrowed,  and  again  when  they  are  just 
coming  up,  and  after  storms  large  enough  to  cause  the  soil 
to  crust.  Harrowing  ought  to  be  discontinued  as  soon  as 
the  harrow  injures  the  vines.  Tillage  may  be  continued 
with  a  small-toothed  cultivator,  running  at  a  depth  of  from 
two  to  four  inches.  As  a  rule,  the  first  cultivation  should 
be  somewhat  deep,  whereas  the  later  ones  should  be  rather 
shallow  to  avoid  injuring  the  roots,  disturbing  the -tubers,  and 
hilUng  the  vines  too  much. 

Irrigation.  Where  the  seed  bed  has  been  properly  pre- 
pared and  the  cultivation  thoroughly  done,  it  will  in  most 
cases  not  be  necessary  to  irrigate  until  after  the  vines  have 
blossomed.  They  should  be  ridged  up  slightly,  and  every 
alternate  row  irrigated.  At  the  next  irrigation  the  other 
half  of  rows  should  be  furrowed  out  and  water  applied  to 
these.  During  all  other  irrigations,  run  the  water  through 
all  the  rows,  cultivating  as  soon  after  each  irrigation  as  the 
soil  will  permit.  If  the  plants  will  not  go  without  water 
until  after  blossoming,  it  is  well  to  irrigate  earlier.  If  the 
soil  is  heavy  and  clayey,  the  irrigation  furrows  should  be 
deep;  otherwise  shallow  furrows  are  best. 

Too  much  water  has  a  tendency  to  lower  the  vitality  and 
quality  of  the  potatoes.  Probably  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  inches  will  give  the  maximum  yield.  The  aim  in  irrigat- 
ing should  be  to  keep  the  soil  at  nearly  an  even  temperature 
and  with  nearly  the  same  moisture  content  throughout  the 
growing  period.  These  conditions  encourage  continuous 
starch  formation. 

Harvesting.  The  usual  method  of  digging,  .when  small 
areas  are  grown,  is  to  turn  out  the  potatoes  with  a  plow. 
When  large  areas  are  handled,  the  potato  digger  should  be 


POTATOES 


213 


used.  If  the  ground  has  been  properly  cultivated,  the 
labor  at  the  time  of  digging  is  little,  although  on  land  that  is 
foul  with  weeds  or  that  is  cracked  and  baked  it  will  be  great. 


Figure  79. — A  potato  harvesting  scene. 


Prices  and  markets  have  varied  so  much  in  the  last 
forty  years  that  farmers  could  not  estimate  closely  at  plant- 
ing time  what  their  returns  at  harvest  were  likely  to  be. 
This  uncertainty  led  to  much  speculative  planting.  When 
prices  were  high  large  acreages  were  planted.  The  markets 
were  glutted  the  next  fall  and  havoc  was  wrought  with 


214  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

prices.  Sometimes  no  market  could  be  found,  thousands  of 
bushels  rotting  in  the  pits  or  being  dumped  on  waste  land. 
A  company  in  Colorado  hit  on  a  scheme  of  growing  the  same 
area  each  season,  carefully  sorting  the  potatoes,  and  market- 
ing in  large  quantities.     This  plan  helped  materially. 

Storing.  Potatoes  not  marketed  soon  after  harvesting 
must  be  stored  in  some  cool,  dark,  well-ventilated  place. 
The  ordinary  cellar  on  the  farm  will  usually  do  for  this  pur- 
pose, provided  it  is  dry.  A  good  pit  in  which  the  tempera- 
ture can  be  held  comparatively  low  and  constant  is  also 
good.  The  following  method  of  storing  potatoes  is  practiced 
by  some  of  the  most  successful  potato  growers : 

They  dig  a  pit  about  one  foot  in  depth,  four  feet  in 
width,  and  of  any  length  desired.  This  is  left  open  until  it 
cools  down  nearly  to  freezing  temperature.  The  potatoes  to 
be  stored  are  then  put  into  the  pit,  nicely  rounded  up,  and 
covered  with  a  layer  of  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  of  straw 
(wheat  or  rye  preferred),  over  which  is  thrown  three  or  four 
inches  of  earth.  Stovepipes  or  wooden  troughs,  closed  with  a 
roll  of  cloth  in  cold  weather,  should  be  inserted  at  intervals 
as  ventilators.  The  layer  of  earth  is  allowed  to  freeze,  and 
then  more  straw  and  earth  are  added. 

Potatoes  have  been  kept  in  this  manner  until  the  middle 
of  April,  and,  when  taken  out,  were  in  fine  condition  for  mar- 
keting or  planting;  but  cellars  are  usually  safer  than  pits. 

Varieties.  The  importance  of  growing  only  one  or  two 
of  the  most  thoroughly  tested  varieties  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized.  The  variety  selected  should  yield  well,  should 
be  acclimated,  have  disease  resistance,  be  vigorous,  and  be  the 
kind  of  potato  which  markets  demand.  The  following 
varieties  have  all  done  well  in  the  intermountain  region: 
Early  Late 

Early  Eureka  Freeman  Pearl 

Early  Ohio  Majestic  Peachblow 

Early  Rose  Idaho  Rural  Netted  Gem 

Early  Russet  Peerless  Market  Prize 


POTATOES  215 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  short  history  of  the  potato. 

2.  What  is  a  potato?     Describe  the  plant  and  tuber. 

3.  To  what  kind  of  a  soil  and  chmate  is  the  potato  best  adapted? 

4.  How  would  you  test  seed  potatoes  for  disease? 

5.  How  should  seed  potatoes  for  planting  be  cut? 

6.  State  irrigation  and  cultivation  requirements. 

7.  How  is  good  quality  in  potatoes  secured?     How  can  you  tell  good 

quality? 

8.  Describe  a  method  of  seed  selection. 

9.  Give  the  main  points  in  storage  of  potatoes. 

10.     Discuss  the  problem  of  variety  for  a  locality.     Name  some  good 
varieties. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Grate  several  potatoes  to  fine  pulp  and  shake  in  water.     Allow 

to  stand  in  a  deep,  narrow  vessel  for  a  few  hours.  Remove 
scum  and  shake.  Repeat  several  times.  The  white  material 
in  the  bottom  is  starch. 

2.  Cut  some  potatoes  in  halves  and  study  structure.     Note  the  three 

,  areas.  They  are  cortical,  outer  medullary^  and  inner  medullary. 
The  dark,  irregular  part  (the  inner  medullary)  is  very  poor  in 
starch.     Make  outline  drawings  and  label. 

3.  Look  up  in  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbooks  the 

five  leading  potato-producing  nations  of  the  world  and  the 
ten  leading  states  in  the  United  States. 

4.  Visit  some  good  potato  Cellar,  storehouse,  or  a  pit  that  is  being 

fiUed. 

5.  Secure  a  sackful  of  potatoes.     Measure  carefully  in  a  good  metal 

measure.  In  thin  board  or  in  heavy  pasteboard  make  a  hole 
2}4  inches  in  diameter  and  another  13^  inches.  All  potatoes 
that  will  not  pass  through  the  large  hole  put  in  one  pile.  These 
are  Grade  No.  1.  In  a  second  pile,  place  those  tubers  that  go 
through  the  large  hole  but  not  through  the  small  one.  Those 
that  pass  through  the  small  hole  are  culls.  Keep  these  separate. 
The  other  potatoes  are  Grade  No.  2.  Now  measure  carefully  and 
see  if  the.  total  volume  of  the  potatoes  is  equal  to  first  measure- 
ment.    If  there  is  any  difference,  explain  the  reason  for  it. 

REFERENCES 
The  Potato,  Gilbert,  Barrus  and  Dean. 
The  Potato,  Fraser. 


216  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

The  Potato,  Grubb  and  Guilford. 
Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 
Productive  Farm  Crops,  Montgomery. 
Field  Crop  Production,  Livingston. 
Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 

Potatoes,  Ontario  Bulletin  239. 
Farmers'  BuUetins: 

No.  295.     Potatoes  and  Other  Root  Crops  as  Food. 

365.     Farm  Management  in  Northern  Potato  Growing  Sec- 
tions. 
386.     Potato  Culture  on  Irrigated  Farms  in  the  West. 
417.     The  Potato  as  a  Truck  Crop. 
533.     Good  Seed  Potatoes. 
544.     Potato-tuber  Diseases. 
557.     The  Potato  Tuber  Moth. 
753.     Commercial  Handling,  Grading,  and  Marketing  of 

Potatoes. 
847.     Potato  Storage  and  Storage  Houses. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
ORCHARD  FRUITS 

Not  all  farnid  are  adapted  to  the  commercial  production 
of  fruit.  There  are,  however,  very  few  farms  in  the  moun- 
tain states  which  could  not  be  made  to  produce  an  abund- 
ance of  fruit  to  be  used  by  the  home.  In  some  localities 
peaches  and  cherries  might  not  be  successfully  grown  on 
account  of  late  spring  frosts,  but  an  ample  supply  of  apples, 
pears  and  plums,  and  the  small  fruits  could  be  raised  for 
home  use.  In  selecting  a  section  of  the  farm  for  fruit  trees 
the  first  important  point  to  consider  is  the  soil. 

Soil.  Almost  any  good  fertile  soil  which  will  grow  fair 
crops  of  potatoes  and  vegetables  can  be  made  suitable  for 
the  apple,  pear  and  plum,  which  adapt  themselves  nicely  to 
a  soil  varying  from  the  sandy  loam  to  the  clay  loam.  The 
cherry  and  peach  thrive  best  on  a  rather  light,  well-drained 
soil.  It  is  important,  however,  that  this  soil  be  deep,  that 
is,  not  too  closely  underlaid  with  a  gravel  or  clay  hardpan 
and  not  susceptible  to  a  high  water  table,  at  least  within  six 
feet  of  the  surface.  If  there  is  not  at  least  six  feet  of  good 
soil,  the  fruit  tree  is  bound  to  be  short-lived  and  unsatis- 
factory. When  a  deep  soil  is  selected  and  other  conditions 
are  favorable,  the  apple  or  pear  tree  will  flourish  and  produce 
fruit  during  a  period  equal  to  the  lifetime  of  an  average 
person.  Much  importance  is  attached  to  the  selection  of 
a  commercial  orchard  site  free  from  frost  conditions.  But 
the  home  fruit  plantation  must  necessarily  be  close  to  the 
buildings  for  convenience  in  the  care  of  the  trees  and  to  get 
the  best  use  of  the  crop. 

The  land  should  be  put  in  good  tillable  condition,  much 
the  same  as  for  the  vegetable  garden. 

217 


218 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Nursery  Stock.  In  the  purchase  of  nursery  stock  it  is 
well  to  patronize  a  nearby  nursery,  since  the  business  integ- 
rity of  the  firm  and  the  quality  of  their  trees  may  be  better 
known.     Oftentimes  the  earlier  the  order  is  placed,  in  the 

late  winter  or  early  spring,  the 
better  the  stock  received.  One- 
year-old  trees  are  preferable  in 
practically  all  fruits,  especially 
in  the  case  of  apples,  peaches, 
and  cherries,  as  trees  of  this  age 
are  less  disturbed  by  transplant- 
ing and  are  more  likely  to 
survive  this  operation.  They 
generally  make  a  more  rapid 
growth  from  the  start  than 
older  trees.  At  the  same  time 
the  fruit  grower  is  able  to  prune 
and  shape  the  head  of  the  trees 
according  to  his  own  ideal  much 
better  by  beginning  with  young 
nursery  stock. 

Pruning  the  Yoirng  Tree. 
A  fruit  tree  should  be  pruned 
systematically  and  periodically 
each  year  from  the  time  it  is 
planted  until  taken  from  the 
orchard.  At  the  time  of  plant- 
ing cut  the  bruised  and  torn  roots  off  to  within  six  or 
seven  inches  of  the  trunk,  making  a  good  clean  cut.  A  cut 
will  heal  more  rapidly  than  a  bruise.  The  top  should  be 
pruned  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  planted  to  maintain  balance 
between  the  top  and  the  root  system.  If  one-year-old 
*' whips"  are  planted,  they  should  be  cut  back  thirty  inches 
from  the  ground  at  planting.  On  the  other  hand,  if  two- 
year-old  trees  are  used  and  the  head  of  the  tree  has  already 


Figure  80. — Well  grown  one-year- 
old  apple  trees. 


ORCHARD  FRUITS 


219 


Figure  81.  —  Well-shaped  Jonathan 
tree  before  its  annual  pruning.  Top 
branches  should  be  trimmed  out 
slightly. 


been  formed,  from  three  to 
five  main  branches  should  be 
selected  to  make  the  frame- 
work of  the  tree.  These 
should  be  distributed  as 
equally  as  possible  around 
the  tree  and  at  the  same  time 
arranged  up  and  down  a  space 
of  eight  or  ten  inches  along 
the  trunk.  If  all  the  branches 
are  started  at  the  same 
place  on  the  trunk,  the  tree 
will  be  likely  to  break  down 
under  heavy  loads  of  fruit. 
The  lowest  branches  should 
not  be  less  than  twenty  inches 
from  the  ground  to  facilitate 

cultivation  operations.     At  the  same  time,  it  is  well  to  have 

a  low-headed  tree,  thus  shading  the  trunk  to  prevent  sun 

scald  and   to   make   pruning, 

picking,  thinning,  and  spraying 

more  convenient.     These  main 

branches  of  the  tree  should  be 

headed  back  to  two  or  three 

buds  at  the  time  of  planting; 

otherwise  the  tree  may  start  to 

grow  very  slowly  or  even  die 

on  account  of  having  too  large 

a  top  in  proportion  to  the  roots. 

The  first  year  after  planting 

the  tree  will  have  six  or  eight 

branches  from  these   original 

five,  a  part  of  which   should 

be  removed,  leaving  only  about 

one  shoot  on  each  of  the  five     ^'^"^oM  ap^it  tTel^Lfetru"^^^^^ 


220 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


original  limbs.  If  a  one-year-old  whip  has  been  planted, 
these  lateral  branches  will  start  from  the  main  trunk.  These 
should  be  cut  back  to  within  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  of 
the  trunk  to  strengthen  the  young  tree,  making  it  more  com- 
pact and  stronger.  A  year  or  two  of  cutting  back  the  main 
limbs  of  the  tree,  when  it  is  first  started,  may  save  it  from 


Figure  83. — Vegetables  may  be  cultivated  between  rows  of  fruit  trees  for  six  or 
seven  years  after  treea  are  planted. 


breaking  down  by  heavy  crops  in  later  years,  but  should  be 
discontinued  in  the  case  of  apples,  pears  and  cherries  after 
the  third  year. 

Pruning  the  Mature  Tree.  The  mature,  bearing  tree 
should  receive  its  moderate  annual  pruning  early  in  the 
spring.  If  it  has  been  properly  handled  during  its  early 
years,  the  pruning  operation  will  not  be  laborious  or  com- 
pHcated.  In  removing  branches  the  cut  should  be  made 
close  to  the  remaining  limb  without  leaving  any  stub.  Long 
stubs  may  never  completely  heal  over  but  smooth  cuts  will 
heal  readily.  The  work  should  be  taken  up  systematically, 
first  removing  any  lower  limbs  which  interfere  with  culti- 
vation, then  removing  from  the  center  all  straight  water- 
shoot  growths  which  would  soon  fill  the  tree.    If  there  are 


ORCHARD  FRUITS 


221 


limbs  which  make  bad  crotches,  cross  one  another,  or  rub 
together,  one  of  them  may  be  reinoved.  In  case  the  tree 
is  growing  too  high  and  out  of  bounds  it  may  be  cut  back  to 
a  side  branch.  In  cutting  back  a  tree  under  these  condi- 
tions   one  should  never  simply  cut  back  all  the  branches, 


Figure  84. — Alfalfa  or  clover  may  be  grown  in  the  bearing  orchard  if  the  soil  is  rich 
and  there  is  an  abundance  of  water. 


but  should  always  make  this  cut  to  a  lateral  growth  to  which 
the  strength  of  the  tree  will  go  rather  than  be  forced  to  the 
upright  branches.  It  is  often  desirable  to  do  this  cutting 
back  in  the  summertime,  as  pruning  at  this  time  is  less 
Ukely  to  stimulate  an  excessive  wood  growth.  As  noted 
above,  pruning  should  be  an  annual  process,  as  irregular 
severe  pruning  is  conducive  to  excessive  wood  growth  at 
the  expense  of  fruit  production.  Detailed  methods  to  be 
followed  in  pruning  the  several  different  fruit  trees  cannot 
be  developed  within  the  space  of  this  text,  but  may  be  found 
by  those  interested  in  references  1,  2,  8  and  11. 

Thinning  the  Fruit.  There  is  no  other  factor  which  is 
more  important  in  the  production  of  high  quality  fruit  than 
thinning.     It  is  the  common  practice  of  the  average  farmer 


222 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


to  thin  the  sugar  beets  and  various  vegetable  crops  that 
those  plants  remaining  may  have  more  room  and  better  nour- 
ishment and  attain  a  more  perfect  growth.  Many  of  the 
same  farmers  will,  however,  allow  an  apple  tree  to  be  greatly 
overburdened  with  the  production  of  a  large  amount  of 
inferior  fruit.     The  exact  amount  of  fruit  to  be  removed  will 


^^^M 

Li 

...t.^ 

f^:-f--^W''-'-^-:',:^ 

r 

'Jreoi 

m^.  -  -.-"^^S^S 

^Ps^^SIKHIiPg 

:;.  S^^P^^ 

Figure  85. — A  spring-tooth  cultivator  is  useful  in  working  an  orchard,  especially 

silt  loam  soil. 


have  to  be  learned  by  experience.  If  actually  one  half  of 
the  fruit  is  thinned  from  the  tree,  the  remaining  half  will 
often  yield  as  much  bulk  as  the  entire  crop  would  have 
yielded,  besides  being  greatly  superior  fruit.  The  best  time 
to  thin  the  fruit  is  about  the  first  week  in  July,  immediately 
after  the  so-called  June  drop. 

Cultivation.  Good  cultural  conditions  are  as  necessary 
in  the  orchard  as  in  the  garden.  Vegetable  crops  may  be 
grown  between  the  trees  for  the  first  six  or  eight  years 
after  planting  the  orchard,  until  the  soil  becomes  too  shaded 
for  the  intercrops. 

The  tools  to  be  used  in  cultivating  depend  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil.    A  spike-tooth  harrow  might  be  a  very 


ORCHARD  FRUITS 


223 


satisfactory  implement  for  a  sandy  loam,  but  an  imple- 
ment designed  to  cut  and  break  up  the  clods,  such  as  the 
Acme  harrow,  would  be  more  satisfactory  on  a  heavy  soil. 
Irrigation  water  should  be  used  judiciously  and  only  when 
the  trees  need  it.  No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  set  down 
for  the  application  of  water.  The  grower  will  learn  to 
know  when  the  trees  are  in  need  of  more  moisture.     Each 


Figure  86. — The  proper  system  of  irrigation  in  a  western  orchard. 


irrigation  should  wet  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet, 
and  the  trees  should  never  be  allowed  to  suffer  for  want  of 
water.  It  is  well  to  remember,  however,  that  injury  can 
be  caused  by  too  much  water  as  well  as  by  too  little.  Trees 
heavily  laden  with  fruit  require  much  more  water  than 
young  growing  trees,  although  the  latter  should  be  given 
several  irrigations  each  year  to  keep  them  vigorous. 

Picking  and  Storing.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in 
picking  all  fruit  crops  and  especially  fruit  destined  for  stor- 
age. All  fruit  should  be  picked  at  the  proper  time  in  the 
most  careful  manner  and  handled  judiciously  after  being 
picked.  Apples  for  immediate  use  should  remain  on  the 
tree  until  thoroughly  ripe.     Apples  for  winter  consumption 


224 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


should  be  picked  shortly  before  they  have  reached  the  stage 
of  complete  ripeness.  This  point  has  been  reached  when 
the  seeds  are  partially  or  wholly  brown,  when  the  fruit  has 
taken  on  its  characteristic  flavor  and  has  become  well- 
colored,  at  which  time 
the  apple  will  separate 
from  the  twig  with 
comparative  readiness. 
Since  most  pears 
ripen  best  out  of  the 
sunlight  and  are  sub- 
ject to  core  rot  if  al- 
lowed to  remain  on  the 
tree  too  long,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  pick  them 
early  and  allow  them 
to  ripen  in  storage. 
Pears  picked  green, 
however,  will  wilt  and 
become  worthless.  The  proper  time  to  pick  a  pear  is  when 
it  has  reached  its  maximum  size,  become  mottled,  is  yellow 
at  the  base,  and  separates  readily  from  the  spur.  Several 
pickings  are  required  to  get  the  best  results. 

Peaches,  for  home  use,  are  allowed  to  remain  upon  the 
tree  until  thoroughly  ripe. 

Fruit  must  be  handled  carefully  to  keep  it  free  from 
bruises  of  any  kind.  A  clean  solid  apple  will  keep  in  storage 
much  longer  than  a  bruised  one.  With  a  common  cellar 
for  storage,  apples  may  be  kept  and  enjoyed  in  the  average 
farm  family  from  ten  to  twelve  months,  while  pears  may  be 
held  until  Christmas.  Good  ventilation  and  a  temperature 
of  32  degrees  F.  is  nlost  favoral^le  to  apple  and  pear  storage. 
Varieties  of  Fruit.  There  are  many  varieties  of  fruit  in 
existence  with  a  wide  range  of  adaptability.  Among  those 
best  suited  to  the  semi-arid  states  are: 


Figure  87. — A  three- year- old  apple  tree.       The 
fruit  is  borne  on  the  two-year-old  wood. 


ORCHARD  FRUITS  225 


EARLY  APPLES 


Red  Aslrachan.  This  is  one  of  the  leading  summer  apples,  medium 
size,  greenish  yellow,  striped  and  blushed  with  dark  red.  The  tree  is 
vigorous,  early  and  an  abundant  bearer.  Season,  late  in  July  and 
August.  It  is  very  hardy  and  should  withstand  the  climatic  condi- 
tions in  countries  of  high  altitude. 

Yellow  Transparent.  This  variety  is  next  in  importance  to  the 
Red  Astrachan,  of  medium  size,  bright  yellow,  and  of  good  quality  for 
both  dessert  and  culinary  purposes.  The  tree  is  a  vigorous,  upright 
grower,  a  good  early  bearer,  and  withstands  severe  climates.  Season, 
late  in  July  and  early  August. 

Wealthy.  Medium  to  large,  light  yellow  apple,  splashed  and 
mottled  with  dark  red,  very  attractive.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  spread- 
ing, very  productive,  and  capable  of  withstanding  climatic  conditions 
in  the  counties  of  high  altitude.  Season,  September  to  November 
in  low  altitude,  and  October  to  January  in  high  altitudes. 

Maiden's  Blush.  Medium-size  yellow  apple  blushed  with  red, 
very  popular  for  fall  use.  The  quahty  is  excellent  for  dessert  purposes, 
cooking,  or  evaporation.  Season,  September  to  October.  The  tree 
is  vigorous  and  productive. 

WINTER  APPLES 

Mcintosh.  Medium-size,  bright  deep  red  color,  very  attractive 
in  appearance,  flesh  very  tender,  perfumed  and  delicious.  This  is  one 
of  the  very  best  dessert  varieties  for  home  use  and  local  markets  from 
September  to  December  1st.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  very  hardy  and  a 
reliable  cropper. 

Jonathan.  Medium  size  bright  red  apple,  of  very  good  quality 
for  dessert  and  culinary  purposes.  Season  from  November  to  January. 
This  is  one  of  the  very  best  commercial  apples. 

Winesap.  Medium  to  small,  bright  red  apple,  of  firm  flesh,  crisp, 
and  of  slightly  subacid  flavor.  The  tree  is  medium  in  size  and  vigor- 
ous. The  size  of  the  fruit  is  much  benefited  by  thinning.  Season, 
December  to  April,  a  good-keeping  apple. 

R.  I.  Greening.  Large  green  apple  of  excellent  quality.  The 
tree  is  vigorous,  spreading  and  a  medium  to  heavy  bearer.  This  variety 
is  most  excellent  for  cuhnary  purposes  and  regarded  by  some  as  good 
for  dessert.     Season,  December  to  March. 

Arkansas.  (Mammoth  Black  Twig.)  A  large  to  medium  green- 
ish apple  overlaid  with  dark  red,  becoming  rich  garnet  on  the  exposed 
side.     It  usually  overgrows,  and  is  nonproductive  on  heavy  soils.     It 

15— 


226  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

is  much  more  satisfactory  on  the  sandy  loams  and  even  here  it  is  some- 
times only  a  medium  producer.  The  flavor  is  subacid  of  good  quality. 
Season,  December  to  April. 

PEARS 

Bartlett.  One  of  the  very  best  pears  for  home  use  but  very  sus- 
ceptible to  blight.  A  large  clear  yellow  pear  with  reddish  blush  and  of 
fine  quality.  Season,  about  the  20th  of  August  in  Box  Elder  County, 
Utah. 

Flemish.  Often  known  as  Flemish  Beauty:  A  large  yellow  pear 
nearly  covered  with  a  russet  red  blush.  The  flesh  is  a  little  coarse,  but 
juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  highly  flavored.     Season,  September. 

Lawrence.  Medium  size,  fruit  light  yellow  with  many  small  dots 
and  of  good  quality.  Season,  about  September  15th,  but  will  keep  in 
common  storage  until  December. 

Winter  Nelis.  Yellowish  green  pear,  much  russeted,  fine  grain, 
sweet  and  of  good  quality.  It  can  be  picked  just  before  frost  and  will 
keep  until  December. 

Anjou.  A  large,  short-stemmed,  greenish  yellow  pear,  sprinkled 
with  russet  and  a  dull  red  blush.  It  has  fine  juicy  flesh  and  is  of  good 
quality.  Season,  about  September  15th,  but  may  keep  in  common 
storage  until  December  1st.     It  is  likely  to  be  a  scant  bearer. 

PEACHES 

Alexander.  A  medium  to  small  yellowish  white  peach,  covered 
with  deep  red  blush  on  the  sunny  side.  Its  flesh  is  white,  firm,  juicy, 
and  of  good  quality,  with  stone  nearly  free.  It  is  one  of  the  best  early 
varieties  for  local  trade  and  home  use. 

Early  Crawford.  A  large  bright  yellow  peach  with  a  red  cheek. 
Often  the  yellow  surface  is  sprinkled  with  red  splashes.  Its  flesh  is 
yellow,  juicy,  sweet  and  of  very  good  quality,  with  a  free  stone.  It  is 
widely  grown  in  some  sections  as  a  commercial  peach.  Season,  early 
to  medium. 

Triumph.  A  large  yellow  peach,  overlaid  with  red.  The  flesh  is 
deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  of  good  quaUty.  Semicling.  Medium  sea- 
son.    It  is  one  of  the  best  early  yellow  flesh  varieties. 

Early  Elberta.  A  large  yellow  peach  with  a  crimson  blush.  The 
flesh  is  yellow,  of  good  quality  and  has  a  free  stone.  The  tree  is  vigor- 
ous and  very  productive.  Season,  late  summer,  a  week  or  ten  days 
earlier  than  Elberta;  but  it  has  a  very  good  keeping  quality. 


ORCHARD  FRUITS  227 

Elberta.  The  most  widely  known  commercial  peach.  It  has 
large  round  yellow  fruit  with  a  dark  red  blush  on  the  sunny  side.  The 
flesh  is  pale  yellow,  tender,  juicy,  and  of  medium  quality.  It  is  a  good 
shipping  peach.  Season,  medium  to  late.  The  trees  are  strong, 
vigorous,  and  heavy  bearers.     This  variety  is  inclined  to  thin  itself. 

Orange  Cling.  A  large  orange  yellow  peach  with  red  cheek,  firm 
juicy  flesh,  of  good  quality,  and  with  a  cling  stone.  Season,  about 
ten  days  later  than  the  Elberta. 

SWEET  CHERRIES 

Napoleon,  (Royal  Ann.)  Large,  heart-shaped,  yellow  cherry  with 
bright  red  blush,  and  with  a  very  firm,  sweet  juicy  flesh.  It  is  one  of 
the  very  best  varieties.     Season,  last  of  June  to  first  of  July. 

Black  Tartarian.  Medium  to  large  black  cherry,  with  dark  flesh, 
and  of  fine,  mild,  sweet  flavor.     Season,  middle  of  June. 

Bing.  One  of  the  newer  dark  red,  nearly  black,  sweet  cherries, 
very  large  and  of  excellent  flavor.  It  promises  to  be  one  of  the  leading 
market  varieties.     Season,  a  little  later  than  the  Black  Tartarian. 

Lambert.  It  is  very  similar  to,  and  seems  to  be  as  meritorious  as, 
the  Bing. 

Winsor.  A  very  dark  red  cherry  of  firm  flesh  and  good  quahty. 
Season,  about  the  same  as  the  Napoleon. 

SOUR  CHERRIES 

Montmorency.  One  of  the  leading  sour  cherries,  medium  in  size, 
light  red,  but  less  hardy  than  many  of  the  smaller  kinds.  It  makes  a 
good  appearance  when  canned. 

Knudson.  A  very  hardy,  mild  sour  cherry,  bright  scarlet  in  color 
and  having  medium  to  large  fruit.  It  is  one  of  the  most  attractive 
pie  and  canning  cherries  in  existence.  It  is  a  very  early  bearer,  and 
ripens  its  fruit  over  a  long  period. 

PLUMS 

Abundance.  A  yellowish  fruit  nearly  overlaid  with  bright  red, 
of  yellow  flesh  and  good  quality.  Season,  early.  This  Japanese 
variety  blooms  early  and  is,  therefore,  liable  to  frost  injury  in  un- 
protected sections. 

Bradshaw.  A  dark  purplish  red  plum,  with  medium  to  large 
fruit.  Its  flesh  is  greenish  yellow,  sweet,  and  of  good  quality.  The 
stone  is  nearly  free.    Season,  middle  of  August. 


228  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Italian  Prune.  One  of  the  most  widely  grown  and  most  popular 
varieties  of  medium  size,  dark  purple,  with  a  greenish  yellow  flesh, 
juicy,  sweet,  and  of  good  quality.  It  has  a  free  stone.  Season,  late 
August  to  September.  It  is  extensively  grown  for  dried  prunes,  as  well 
as  for  market  purposes. 

Giant  (Giant  Prune).  A  very  large  dark  crimson  fruit,  with 
yellowish  flesh  of  good  quality.  It  is  considerably  grown  for  market 
purposes. 

Damson.  A  small  purplish  plum,  with  a  melting,  juicy  flesh  of 
subacid  flavor.  It  has  a  free  stone.  Season,  medium.  It  is  an  ex- 
ceptionally heavy  producer  and  is  largely  used  for  preserving. 

Golden  Drop  (Silver  Prune).  One  of  the  largest  and  best  quality 
yellow  plums,  especially  adapted  to  the  home  fruit  garden  in  the  semi- 
arid  states.     Season,  late. 

De  Soto.  A  medium-size  oval  plum,  orange  yellow,  mostly  over- 
laid with  crimson,  and  of  very  good  quality.  Season,  medium.  It  is 
a  hardier  variety  than  any  of  the  above  and  valued  for  preservmg. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  favorable  and  unfavorable  soil  conditions  for  fruit  trees. 

2.  At  what  age  should  nursery  trees  be  purchased?     Why? 

3.  Discuss  the  pruning  of  the  young  tree  to  shape  the  framework 

branches. 

4.  Discuss  the  pruning  of  a  mature  fruit  tree. 

5.  Why  is  fruit  thinned,  and  how? 

6.  Discuss  the  cultivation  and  irrigation  of  fruit  trees. 

7.  How  can  one  judge  the  proper  season  to  pick  apples,  j)ears  and 

peaches? 

8.  Name  and  describe  briefly  three  varieties  of  each  of  the  following: 

apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS   . 

1.  Grafting:  Apples  arc  sometimes  propagated  by  means  of  graft- 
ing a  twig,  called  the  cion,  to  a  root  of  a  tree,  called  the  stock, 
which  is  one  year  old.  This  is  because  a  twig  will  always  pro- 
duce the  same  kind  of  apples  as  the  tree  from  which  the  twig  is 
cut;  whereas  an  apple  seed  usually  produces  a  tree  which  bears 
some  other  kind  of  apples. 
For  practice  in  grafting  it  is  wise  to  use  only  tlie  twigs  bearing 
good,  plump  buds.  Cut  two  pieces  of  twigs  alM)ut  six  inches 
long.     Cut  off  the  end  of  each  piece  with  a  long  slanting  cut, 


ORCHARD  FRUIT 8 


229 


the  surface  of  the  cut  being  about  an  inch 
long.  Practice  until  the  cut  can  be  made 
with  one  stroke  of  the  knife,  thus  securing 
a  smooth  surface.  Now,  starting  near  the 
tip  of  slant,  split  the  twig  down  as  far  as 
the  other  end  of  the  slanting  cut.  Repeat 
with  another  twig  of  about  the  same  size 
and  fit  the  two  cut  ends  into  each  other. 
Fit  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  line 
between  the  wood  and  the  bark  on  each 
piece  touches  the  same  line  on  the  other 
piece.  Wind  the  splice  tightly  with  string 
and  the  graft  is  finished.  If  the  lower  piece 
were  a  root,  the  two  pieces  would  unite  and 
could  be  planted  to  grow  into  a  tree. 
2.  Budding:  Apples  are  also  often  propagated 
by  budding.  A  piece  of  bark  bearing  a  bud 
is  inserted  under  the  bark  about  four  inches 
above  the  ground  on  a  two-year-old  tree 
grown  from  a  seed.  The  bud  grows  and 
the  top  of  the  old  tree  is  cut  off,  the  growth 
from  the  bud  becoming  the  new  top. 
If  the  work  is  done  in  the  late  spring,  the  buds 
may  be  inserted,  for  practice,  in  branches 
about  an  inch  in  thickness.  If  done  in  the  fall,  the  budding  may 
be  practiced  on  willow  branches  an  inch  thick  which  have  been 
boiled  or  steamed  to  make  the  bark  slip. 
Select  apple  shoots  bear- 
ing  dormant  buds. 
Starting  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  above  the  bud  and 
cutting  the  same  dis- 
tance below,  cut  off  a 
piece  of  bark  with  the 
bud  in  the  middle.  On 
the  apple  branch  or 
willow  stick,  which  is 
called  the  stock,  make 
an  inch-long  cut  length- 
wise of  the  branch.     At 

one  end  of  this  cut  make        Figure  89. — A,  cutting  the  bud;  B,  bud  partly 
„i       ,      ^     „     ,,4..  u  4.U  inserted  under  bark;  C,  bud  inserted  and 

a  short  cross  cut;  both         tied. 


Figure  88 — Illustration 
of  whip-grafting 
showing:  A,  the 
method  of  making 
the  cut;  B,  the  stock 
and  cion  spliced  to- 
gether; and  C,  the 
splice  wrapped  with 
waxed  string. 


230 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


cuts  need  go  only  through  the  bark.  Lift  the  corners  of  the 
bark  with  the  point  of  the  knife  and  then  thrust  the  bud  under 
the  bark  in  such  a  way  that  the  bud  faces  out  through  the 
vertical  cut.  Wind  the  branch  tightly  with  string  to  press  the 
bud  against  the  branch. 
If  the  work  is  rightly  done  on  a  growing  tree  in  the  spring,  the 
bud  will  unite  with  the  stock  in  about  two  weeks.  The  string 
may  then  be  cut  off  and  the  bud  will  soon  begin  to  grow. 
3.  Fruit  Btid  Studies:  Fruit  trees 
bear  two  kinds  of  buds:  (1) 
leaf  buds,  or  those  which  open 
out  and  make  leaves  and  later 
•  develop  into  branches;  and 
(2)  fruit  buds  which  develop 
into  flowers  and  later  into 
fruit.  There  is  a  difference  in 
appearance  between  leaf  buds 
and  fruit  buds,  especially  in 
the  apple.  The  fruit  bud  is 
large  and  plump,  whereas  the 
leaf  bud  is  smaller,  narrower, 
and  more  pointed. 
In  the  spring  of  the  year,  bring 
in  branches  of  different  kinds 
of  fruit  trees  and  set  them  in 
water.  Draw  parts  of  the 
branches  to  show  different 
kinds  of  buds  and  label  them. 
In  general,  the  different  fruits 
bear  buds  as  follows: 

(a)  Apples — fruit  buds  are  ter- 
minal on  short  twigs  called  spurs.     The  fruit  buds  are  some- 
times terminal  on  wood  which  was  formed  last  summer.     Pear 
fruit  buds  are  like  those  of  apples. 

(b)  Plums — fruit  buds  are  lateral  on  spurs  and  the  terminal 
bud  is  a  leaf  bud.  The  buds  are  long  and  more  pointed  than 
apple  buds. 

(c)  Cherries — fruit  buds  are  lateral  on  short  spurs  and  are  usually 
in  a  cluster  near  the  tip  of  the  spur.  Fruit  buds  may  also  l)e 
lateral  on  long  shoots  grown  last  summer. 


Figure  90. — Twigs  of:  A,  cherry;  B, 
plum:  C,  apple;  D,  peach,  show- 
ing: F,  fruit  buds,  and  L,  leaf- 
buds.  Numerals  1,  2,  and  3  show 
afce  of  wood  in  years;  O  indicates 
divison  between  the  different  ages 
of  wood. 


ORCHARD  FRUITS 


231 


(d)  Peaches — bear  their  buds  in  groups  of  three.  The  fruit 
bud  is  the  small  central  bud  on  wood  grown  last  sumoKH*. 
The  two  outside  buds  are  leaf  buds. 
Leave  the  branches  in  water  for  a  few  weeks  until  the  buds  have 
opened  and  the  flowers  bloomed,  then  see  if  you  have  labeled 
the  buds  in  your  drawings  correctly. 
When  fruit  trees  are  in  bloom  in  the  spring  study  the  buds  out 
of  doors,  noting  just  where  the  buds  which  produced  flowers 

and  those  which  produced 
only  leaves  and  branches 
were  situated  on  last  year's 
wood.  Were  the  buds  lateral 
or  terminal?  Were  they  on 
short  spurs  or  on  long  shoots 
of  wood? 
Cutting  off  a  Branch:  One  of 
the  first  principles  to  be 
learned  in  pruning  fruit  is 
the  proper  method  of  cut- 
ting off  a  branch.  When  a 
branch  is  removed,  there  is 
left  a  tender  cut  surface 
open  to  attack  of  various 
diseases  which  may  enter 
the  tree  at  that  point  and 
eventually  kill  it.  To  pre- 
vent this  result,  the  cut 
should  be  made  in  such  a 
way  that  the  wound  will  heal  rapidly.  This  exercise  demon- 
strates the  proper  method  of  making  the  cut. 
The  tools  necessary  are  either  a  pair  of  pruning  shears  or  a  saw 
and  a  sharp  knife.  The  work  may  be  done  on  any  kind  of  a 
tree.  In  winter,  choose  a  branched  limb  about  one  half  or 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick.  Cut  off  the  branch  about  one 
inch  away  from  the  hmb,  leaving  a  stub  (as  shown  in  A,  Figure 
91).  If  the  cut  is  made  with  the  saw,  the  surface  will  be 
rough  and  should  be  smoothed  with  the  knife.  Now  choose 
another  branched  limb  of  the  same  diameter  and  cut  off  the 
branch  close  up  to  the  limb,  leaving  a  smooth  surface  and  no 
projecting  stub  (as  shown  in  B,  Figure  91).  Watch  develop- 
ments in  the  healing  of  the  two  cuts.    Explain.    From  which 


Figure  91.  —  Longitudinal  section  of 
branches  showing:  A,  branch  cut 
off  leaving  a  long  stub  which  will 
not  heal^  over;  B,  properly  mace 
cut  healing  over  from  above;  C, 
properly  made  cut  healed  over. 


232  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

side  of  tho  wound  does  healing  take  i>lacc  most  rapidly?  (C, 
Figure  1)1,  shows  a  close  cut  wound  which  has  healed  com- 
pletely.) 
5.  In  case  somebody  is  available  who  is  familiar  with  pruning,  the 
class  may  be  taken  to  an  orchard  and  taught  how  to  prune 
various  kinds  of  trees.  This  exercise,  however,  requires  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  pruning. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Pruning  Book,  Bailey. 

2.  Fruit  Growing  in  Arid  Regions,  Paddock  and  Whipple. 

3.  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  Bailey. 

4.  American  Apple  Orchard,  Waugh. 

5.  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits,  Bailey. 

6.  Popular  Fruit  Growing,  Green. 

7.  Journal  of  Royal  Horticultural  Society,  About  40  Vol. 

8.  Productive  Orcharding,  Sears. 

9.  Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing  and  Marketing,  Waugh. 

10.  Plums  and  Plum  Culture,  Waugh. 

11.  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing,  Bailey. 

12.  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book,  Bailey. 

13.  Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  113.     The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 
181.     Pruning. 

291.     Evaporation  of  Apples. 
404.     Irrigation  of  Orchards. 
426.     Canning  Peaches  on  the  Farm. 
440.     Spraying  Peaches  for  Control  of  Brown   Rot, 

Scab,  and  Curculio. 
482.     The  Pear  and  How  to  Grow  It. 

491.  The  Profitable  Management  of  a  Small  Apple 
Orchard  on  the  General  Farm. 

492.  The  More  Important  Insects  and  Fungous  Ene- 
mies of  the  Fruit  and  Foliage  of  Apples. 

632.  Growing  Peaches. 

633.  Growing  Peaches:  Varieties  and  Classification. 
670.     Field  Mice  as  Farm  and  Orchard  Pests. 

882     Irrigation  of  Orchards. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

SMALL  FRUITS 

BUSH  FRUIT  CULTURE 

The  bush  fruits,  composed  of  raspberries,  blackberries, 
currants,  gooseberries,  and  dewberries,  require  essentially 
the  same  attention. 

Soil.  Well-drained,  sandy  loams  give  the  best  results. 
The  dewberry,  however,  thrives  best  on  a  gravelly  loam. 
If  the  soil  is  too  rich,  the  plant  produces  vine  at  the  expense 
of  fruit.  Sod  land  should  be  avoided.  Thorough  soil  prep- 
aration is  imperative.  Land  which  has  been  thoroughly 
cultivated  for  one  or  two  seasons  previous  to  planting  is  to 
be  preferred. 

Fertilizers.  Bush  fruits  do  not  require  heavy  fertilizing. 
Land  which  fails  to  give  satisfactory  returns  in  some  of  the 
vegetable  crops  will  often  give  good  yields  of  bush  fruits 
without  the  addition  of  fertilizers  of  any  kind.  Fertilizing 
should  not  be  neglected  entirely.  A  moderate  application 
of  stable  manure  gives  good  results  especially  with  currants, 
gooseberries,  and  raspberries.  Upon  fertile  soils  it  must  be 
used  cautiously,  as  otherwise  it  may  cause  excessive  wood 
growth,  lack  of  hardiness,  and  diminished  fruitfulness. 
Apply  in  fall  or  early  winter,  that  it  may  become  available 
during  the  early  part  of  the  growing  season. 

Care  of  Young  Plants.  It  will  seldom  be  convenient  to 
set  out  the  plants  immediately  upon  their  arrival  from  the 
nursery.  They  should,  however,  be  unpacked  as  soon  as 
received.  The  bunches  should  be  loosened  up  enough  to 
bring  all  the  roots  in  contact  with  the  earth  when  heeled  in. 
The  north  side  of  a  building  or  a  cool  cellar  should  be  used  as 

233 


234 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


SL  place  in  which  to  heel  them.  Open  a  shallow  trench  with 
one  side  somewhat  slanting,  lay  the  plants  against  this  side, 
and  cover  the  roots  with  fine  damp  soil,  packing  it  firmly 
about  them.     If  heeled  in  a  cellar,  damp  sawdust  may  be 

used  to  cover  the  roots. 
Setting  the  Plants. 
The  plants  should  be 
set  out  very  early  in 
the  spring;  otherwise 
the  first  season's 
growth  will  be  seri- 
ously checked.  Spring 
planting  is  preferable 
to  fall  planting  in  the 
semi -arid  West.  The 
common  practice  is 
to  plant  bush  fruits  in 
rows  furrowed  out  six 
to  eight  feet  apart, 
with  the  plants  two  to 
six  feet  apart  in  the 
rows,  depending  upon 
whether  the  planting 
is  done  in  solid  rows  or  in  hills.  The  plants  are  easily  set 
in  mellow  ground  by  working  the  soil  about  the  roots,  firming 
it  with  the  feet.  The  furrow  between  the  plants  may  be 
filled  in  by  subsequent  cultivation.  The  plants  should  be 
carried  in  a  pail  of  water  or  wrapped  in  wet  burlap.  Never 
distribute  the  plants  more  than  a  few  feet  ahead  of  the 
planter.  A  very  few  moments  of  exposure  in  the  sun  or 
wind  will  lessen  the  vitality  of  the  plants  or  even  kill  them. 
Unless  the  weather  is  cool  and  rainy,  the  plants  should  be 
irrigated  as  soon  as  set.  This  first  irrigation  is  quite  essen- 
tial even  though  the  soil  is  already  damp,  for  water  firms  the 
loose  soil  around  the  roots. 


Figure    92. 


Houghton,    one    of     the    standard 
gooseberries. 


SMALL  FRUITS 


235 


Soil  Management.  Cultivation  during  the  first  season 
will  be  the  same  as  for  any  hoed  crop.  Freciuent  stirring  of 
the  soil  to  destroy  weeds,  and  frequent  irrigation,  followed 
by  cultivation,  are  recommended  as  good  practice  through- 
out the  first  season.  Each  succeeding  spring  tillage  should 
begin  early,  using  any  implement  which  will  thoroughly 

loosen  the  soil  and  leave 
it  level.  The  soil  near 
the  plants  should  be 
loosened  with  a  hoe  or 
rake,  so  that  the  entire 
surface  may  be  mellow 
and  in  good  tilth.  This 
cultivation  should  be 
done  early  in  the  spring 
before  the  ground  be- 
comes hard  and  weeds 
are  established. 

Pnining.  The  bram- 
bles (raspberries,  black- 
berries, dewberries,  etc.)  bear  their  fruit  on  one-year-old 
canes.  As  soon  as  the  fruiting  season  is  past  these  canes 
should  be  cut  out  and  burned,  thus  making  room  for  the  new 
growth  and  destroying  insects  and  diseases.  In  common  prac- 
tice, however,  the  pruning  is  neglected  until  the  following 
spring,  when  the  old  dead  canes  are  taken  out  and  the  tips  of 
the  young  canes  cut  back  to  varying  extents,  depending  on 
the  variety. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  bear  their  best  and  most  fruit 
on  the  branches  which  are  from  one  to  three  years  old.  New 
branches  are  produced  each  year  and  these  should  replace  the 
old  branches  which  bear  only  inferior  fruit  in  small  quantities. 
Hence,  in  pruning,  which  should  be  done  in  the  early  spring, 
all  branches  are  cut  out  except  a  few  each  of  the  one,  two, 
and  three-year-old  branches.  In  exceptional  cases  good  results 


Figure  93. — White  Imperial  currant. 


236  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

m.iy  also  be  obtained  l)y  leaving  some  branches  which  are 
four  and  five  years  old.  The  tips  of  the  branches  may  be 
cut  back  in  some  cases  for  various  reasons,  but  this  is  usually 
not  necessary. 

Propagation.  The  methods  of  propagation  are  by  divi- 
sion of  the  parent  plant,  suckers,  mounding  or  cuttings,  and 
tip  layering,  according  to  the  habits  of  the  species. 

Picking  the  Fruit.  Never  pick  the  fruit  when  it  is  wet, 
unless  it  is  positively  necessary  in  showery  weather.  When 
picked  in  this  condition  the  fruit  is  suitable  only  for  pre- 
serving or  immediate  consumption.  Damp  fruit  quickly 
becomes  moldy  in  transit  or  storage. 

STRAWBERRY  CULTURE 

Soil.  A  well-drained,  rich  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  will 
give  good  results  in  the  production  of  strawberries.  Al- 
though this  crop  requires  considerable  water  during  the  rip- 
ening season  of  the  fruit,  it  will  not  pay  well  on  a  poorly 
drained  soil.  In  general,  strawberries  require  soil  conditions 
desirable  for  a  vegetable  garden. 

Liberal  applications  of  stable  manure  should  be  part  of 
the  yearly  treatment  of  the  strawberry  patch.  It  can  be 
applied  in  the  late  fall  or  winter,  thus  serving  as  mulch  as 
well  as  fertilizer.  If  there  is  a  light  snowfall,  this  mulch  will 
often  reduce  the  likelihood  of  the  winter  killing  where  the 
climate  is  severe,  and  it  may  also  prevent  the  plants  from 
blossoming  until  after  late  spring  frosts. 

Propagation  and  Culture.  In  starting  a  new  bed  the 
plants  should  be  set  out  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  well  established  before  hot  weather. 

Strawberries  do  not  come  true  from  seed;  therefore  varieties 
are  propagated  vegetatively  by  means  of  runners.  In  setting 
out  a  new  patch  only  young  plants  which  have  never  borne 
fruit  should  be  used.  Three  years  is  about  the  average  life 
of  a  commercial  strawberry  patch,  some  growers  harvesting 
only  two  crops.    The  land  is  then  used  for  some  hoed  crop  for 


SMALL  FRUITS  237 

two  years  before  replanting  to  strawberries.  Before  planting, 
the  roots  should  be  pruned  back  to  about  five  inches.  They 
will  then  branch,  producing  a  thick,  matted  root  system. 

If  the  plants  are  set  deeper  than  they  were  in  the  old  bed, 
the  crowns  become  covered  with  soil,  thus  killing  the  plant. 
If  set  less  deeply,  the  roots  dry  out  just  below  the  crown, 
causing  dwarfed  growth  or  the  death  of  many  plants. 

The  plants  do  best  when  set  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four 
inches  apart  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet  distant,  depend- 
ing somewhat  on  the  varieties  used. 

Pollination  and  Varieties.  In  choosing  varieties,  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  polhnation.  Some  varieties  produce 
only  imperfect  flowers,  that  is,  flowers  in  which  pistils  are 
present  but  no  stamens.  These  are  known  as  pistillate  vari- 
eties. This  type  will  not  produce  fruit  when  planted  alone, 
but  must  be  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  pollen-producing  vari- 
eties known  as  staminate  varieties.  When  a  pistillate  vari- 
ety is  planted  it  should  be  alternated  about  every  third  or 
fourth  row  with  one  or  two  rows  of  a  staminate  variety  which 
blossoms  at  the  same  time.  All  the  following  varieties  have 
perfect  flowers  and  are  among  the  most  popular  sorts  grown 
in  the  western  states:  Jucunda  (early) ;  Dunlap  (early  to  mid- 
season);  Marshall  (midseason);  Chesapeake  (midseason  to 
late);  Klondike  (late). 

Tillage.  Frequent  shallow  cultivation  the  first  season  is 
essential  to  the  establishment  of  a  first-class  strawberry  bed, 
in  fact,  the  area  should  be  treated  in  a  manner  similar  to  a 
hoed  garden  crop.  All  blossoms  should  be  picked  off  the 
young  plants  the  first  year  that  they  may  not  become  dwarfed 
by  premature  fruit  bearing. 

Irrigation.  The  plants  should  make  a  continuous  healthy 
growth  and  never  suffer  for  want  of  moisture.  The  bearing 
strawberry  bed  needs  frequent  and  liberal  irrigation  during 
the  fruiting  period.  Lack  of  ample  moisture  will  result  in 
undersized,  inferior  berries. 


238  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Picking.  The  berries  should  be  picked  carefully  without 
bruising.  Fruit  for  market  should  be  picked  every  day, 
since  it  will  remain  firm  and  transportable  only  a  short  time. 
For  near-by  markets  the  berries  may  be  fully  ripe  when 
picked,  but  must  be  firm.  For  distant  markets  the  fruit 
should  be  picked  when  about  three  quarters  to  seven  eighths 
red.  Fruit  in  this  condition  is  full  size,  and  will  ripen  and 
color  in  transit,  reaching  the  market  firm  and  presentable. 

Berries  should  not  be  picked  when  wet.  Wet  berries 
decay  quickly  and  will  not  stand  transportation.  Remove 
the  berries  to  a  shady  place  or  packinghouse  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  picking. 

Marketing.  Strawberries  are  usually  marketed  in  quart 
cups  or  baskets.  Some  states  have  laws  prohibiting  the  sale 
of  strawberries  in  any  other  containers.  These  quart  baskets 
are  usually  shipped  in  crates  holding  from  twelve  to  thirty-six 
baskets,  depending  on  the  market  demands. 

If  the  fruit  be  graded,  each  crate  presents  a  uniform  ap- 
pearance throughout  as  regards  color,  size,  and  ripeness  of 
the  fruit.  To  accomplish  this  result  only  one  variety  should 
be  packed  in  a  crate.  When  a  dark  red  variety  and  a  light 
red  one  of  equal  merit  are  packed  together,  the  light  berries 
usually  appear  to  a  disadvantage,  whereas  they  would  make 
a  very  creditable  showing  by  themselves.  Some  of  the  fancy 
markets  prefer  to  have  the  top  layer  of  berries  in  each  cup 
"faced.'^  They  should  be  packed  honestly  and  the  fruit  on 
top  should  be  a  fair  sample  of  the  contents  of  the  basket. 

GRAPE  CULTURE 

Even  though  grape  culture  is  not  an  extensive  commercial 
enterprise  in  the  western  plain  and  intermountain  states, 
nevertheless  grapes  could  be  produced  for  home  use  on  many 
of  the  farms  throughout  this,  territory. 

A  very  severe  winter  climate  will  kill  grapes  and  very  late 
spring  frosts  will  reduce  the  crop;  whereas  in  a  short  growing 


SMALL  FRUITS 


239 


season  the  crop  may  be  destroyed  by  early  fall  frosts.  Grapes, 
however,  can  be  produced  in  almost  any  climate  which  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  cherries  or  peaches.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  both  the  European  and  American  grape, 

which  make  a   group  with  a 
wide  range  of  adaptation. 

Varieties.  The  following 
varieties  are  among  the  most 
popular  hardy  American 
grapes :  Campbell  Early  (early) ; 
Concord  (midseason) ;  Niagara 
(midseason); Catawba  (late). 

The  European  grapes 
should  be  planted  only  in  the 
semi-arid  West,  and  where  there 
is  a  long  growing  season,  as  in 
the  valleys  contingent  to  the 
Great  Salt  Lake;  Grand  Val- 
ley, Colorado;  Boise  Valley, 
Idaho;  at  a  maximum  altitude 
of  about  4,500  feet;  together 
with  the  lower  valleys  of  southern  Utah,  southern  Colorado, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  California. 

The  European  varieties  which  are  adapted  to  the  above 
region  are:  Black  Prince  (early);  Sultanina  (early);  Alex- 
andria (midseason);  Ferrara  (midseason);  Comichon  (late). 
The  American  varieties  are  also  suited  to  home  use  in  this 
latter  region. 

For  a  detailed  description  of  grape  culture  and  pruning, 
see  references  5,  6  and  7  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  bush  fruits? 

2.  How  does  the  dewberry  differ  in  soil  requirements  from  the  other 

bush  fruits? 

3.  How  should  bush  fruits  be  fertilized? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "heeling  in"  plants  and  how  is  it  done? 


Figure  94. — Concord  grapes. 


240  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

5.  Discuss  the  season  and  method  of  setting  out  bush  fruits. 

6.  When  and  how  are  blackberries  and  raspberries  pruned? 

7.  Discuss  the  poUination  of  strawberries,  and  name  four  perfect 

flowered  varieties. 

8.  Discuss  the  picking  of  small  fruits,  and  their  subsequent  handhng. 

9.  What  are  the  three  principal  climatic  limitations  to  grape  culture 

in  the  mountain  and  western  plain  states? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Pruning  Brambles:    In  order  to  produce  good  strong  fruiting 

wood  and  still  not  have  raspberry  bushes  too  tall  or  too  long,  it 
is  necessary  to  prune  the  new  canes  before  they  fruit. 

Blackberries  and  black  raspberries  are  pruned  in  spring  of  the 
first  year.  When  the  young  canes  are  1^  to  2  feet  high  the 
tips  are  pinched  or  cut  off  and  the  cane  sends  out  strong  stocky 
branches  which  bear  good  fruit.  In  the  spring  of  the  second 
year  these  branches  are  cut  part  way  back  in  order  to  pre- 
vent too  much  fruit. 

Red  raspberries  are  not  pinched  the  first  year,  but  are  allowed 
to  grow  the  first  year.  In  the  spring  of  the  second  year,  these 
one-year-old  canes  are  cut  back  to  three  feet  in  length. 

In  the  winter  go  into  a  bramble  patch  which  has  not  been  pruned 
and  notice  the  two  different  kinds  of  canes.  What  external 
differences  do  you  see?  Cut  some  canes  in  two  and  note 
internal  differences.  Which  should  be  removed  entirely? 
Why?  Remove  all  the  dead  canes,  and  enough  of  the  new 
canes  to  leave  only  three  to  five  in  each  hill.  If  the  new  canes 
are  branched,   trim  back  the  branches. 

In  the  spring,  pinch  back  the  new  canes  of  blackberries  or  black 
raspberries  when  they  are  from  1^  to  2  feet  high  and  watch 
the  results.  Let  some  grow  to  four  feet  tall  and  then  cut  them 
back  to  1^  to  2  feet  long.  Compare  the  results  of  the  two 
treatments  through  the  rest  of  the  life  of  those  particular  canes. 

2.  Pruning  Currants  and  Gooseberries:    Although  the  pruning  of  these 

fruits  is  probably  neglected  more  than  that  of  any  other,  they 
nevertheless  respond  readily  to  pruning. 

The  best  fruit  is  l)orne  on  one-year-old  canes  and  on  the  one-year- 
old  spurs  of  canes  two  and  three  years  old.  After  a  cane 
becomes  four  years  old,  its  fruit  becomes  scarce  and  small; 
therefore,  all  canes  four  years  old  or  older  should  be  removed. 

In  the  winter  go  into  a  currant  or  goosel^erry  patch  which  has  not 
yet  been  pruned.    Count  the  age  of  the  various  canes  and  you 


SMALL  FRUITS  241 

will  find  some  canes  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years  old  or  older. 
Cut  off  at  the  ground  all  those  which  are  four  years  old  and 
older,  and  cut  off  all  but  five  or  six  of  the  one-year-old  canes. 
How  do  the  one-year-old  canes  differ  from  older  canes? 

This  treatment  will  thin  out  all  dead,  weak,  and  superfluous  wood, 
thereby  yielding  a  better  crop. 

Planting  Strawberries:  Secure  from  a  reliable  company  or  grower 
25  or  50  strawberry  plants  to  be  delivered  in  the  early  spring. 
Be  sure  to  select  a  variety  which  is  bi-sexual,  that  is,  one  which 
produces  both  pollen  and  pistils.  Why?  As  soon  as  the  plants 
arrive,  dig  a  shallow  trench,  open  the  package  of  plants,  and 
spread  the  plants  out  in  the  trench  covering  the  roots  firmly 
with  soil.  Do  not  cover  the  crowns  of  plants.  Keep  the  plants 
well  watered. 

When  the  ground  has  been  prepared,  set  the  plants  in  rows  three 
feet  apart  setting  the  plants  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
Dig  a  shallow  hole  and  set  a  plant  into  it,  taking  care  to  spread 
the  roots  out  evenly;  then  cover  with  dirt  and  press  down 
firmly  all  around  the  plant.  The  plant  should  be  set  at  such 
a  depth  that  the  crown  is  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  neither  above  nor  below  it.  If  the  soil  is  dry,  each  plant 
must  be  well  watered. 

Strawberry  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  set  fruit  the  first 
summer.  It  is  necessary  to  entirely  remove  all  blossom  stalks 
as  fast  as  blossoms  appear  during  the  first  summer. 

If  the  hill  system  is  used,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  off  all  the  run- 
ners from  the  plants  as  fast  as  they  appear. 

REFERENCES 

1.  Bush  Fruits,  Revised  Edition,  Card. 

2.  Commercial  Gardening,  Vol.  Ill,  Weathers. 

3.  Encyclopedia  of  Practical  Horticulture,  Lowther 

4.  Popular  Fruit  Growing,  Green. 

5.  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture,  Bailey 

6.  The  Grapes  of  New  York,  Hedrick. 

7.  Strawberry  Growing,  Fletcher. 
8."  Farmers' Bulletins: 

No.     154.  The  Home  Fruit  Garden,  Preparation  and  Care. 

198.  Strawberries. 

213.  Raspberries. 

471.  Grape  Propagation,  Pruning,  and  Training 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN* 

The  vegetable  garden  should  be  a  valuable  asset  of  every 
farm  home  and  can  well  be  worked  in  at  the  rear  of  many- 
town  lots.  All  tillage  should  be  done,  where  space  will  allow, 
with  horse  tools.  The  rows  of  vegetables,  therefore,  should 
be  long  and  continuous.  If  it  is  not  desirable,  however, 
to  grow  one  full  row  of  any  vegetable,  the  row  may  be  made 
up  of  several  crops,  which  demand  similar  cultural  methods, 
as  turnips,  radishes,  and  beets,  which  would  all  thrive  under 
the  same  conditions.  It  is  essential  that  the  soil  be  rich  and 
very  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  very  careful,  frequent,  and 
painstaking  cultivation  is  necessary.  In  the  semi-arid  regions 
this  must  be  supplemented  by  irrigation  every  week  or  ten 
days  to  produce  a  rapid  succulent  growth  which  is  so 
essential  to  high  quality  in  most  vegetable  crops. 

The  perennial  plants,  such  as  rhubarb,  asparagus,  and 
herbs  should  be  arranged  on  one  side  of  the  vegetable  garden 
in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  annual  plowing.  The  above 
hardy  vegetables  should  be  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart  to 
permit  horse  cultivation,  with  the  plants  about  two  feet  apart 
in  the  rows.  It  is  well  to  practice  some  system  of  rotation 
with  the  annual  vegetables,  growing  them  in  different  parts 
of  the  area  in  succeeding  years.  If  radish  or  cabbage  mag- 
gots or  other  insect  pests  become  thoroughly  established, 
omit  for  a  year  or  more  the  vegetables  on  which  they  live. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  crops  should  be  confined  to 
vegetables.  Oftentimes  a  sprinkling  of  flowers  here  and  there 
brightens  up  the  area  and  makes  it  more  attractive  than 
when  planted  entirely  to  the  culinary  crops. 

■•■The  culture  of  potatoes  is  omitted  from  this  chapter,  as  this  erop  is  treated  in 
detail,  pp.  2U8. 

242 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  243 

Size.  The  home  vegetable  garden  for  a  family  of  five  or 
six  persons  would  reciuire,  exclusive  of  potatoes,  a  space  of 
about  100  by  150  feet.  If  several  plantings  of  the  respective 
vegetables  are  made  throughout  the  season,  a  family  can  be 
provided  with  a  wide  variety  of  vegetables  from  early  spring 
to  late  autumn. 

Hardy  Vegetables.  Vegetables  that  are  hardy,  with- 
standing a  light  frost,  may  be  planted  in  the  very  early  spring, 
as  soon  as  the  apricot  trees  are  in  blossom.  Beginning  at  one 
side  of  the  garden  the  lows  may  be  made  the  short  way, 
having  each  row  100  feet  long  and  two  and  one  half  to  three 
feet  apart  to  allow  for  horse  cultivation.  Sowings  of  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  made  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to  work: 
50  feet  each  of  parsnips  and  salsify;  100  feet  of  onions;  50  feet 
of  early  beets;  50  feet  of  lettuce,  with  which  radish  seed  may 
be  sown  to  break  the  soil  and  to  be  harvested  before  the  let- 
tuce needs  the  room;  100  feet  of  early  cauliflower;  100  feet  of 
early  cabbage  plants  which  should  have  been  started  in  a 
cold  frame  or  may  be  purchased  from  a  greenhouse;  400  feet 
of  peas, — early,  medium  and  late  varieties. 

Tender  Vegetables.  After  the  soil  has  become  thoroughly 
warm  and  the  normal  danger  of  frost  is  past,  the  tender  vege- 
tables may  be  planted.  After  the  apple  trees  have  blossomed 
and  dropped  their  petals  this  group  of  vegetables  may  usually 
be  planted  with  safety.  The  following  planting  should  supply 
the  above  family:  100  feet  each  of  early,  medium  and  late 
string  beans.  Sweet  corn  may  be  planted  in  about  5  rows, 
3  feet  apart,  and  about  2^2  feet  between  the  hills  in  the  row, 
— early,  medium,  and  late  varieties.  Twelve  hills  of  Hub- 
bard squash  in  rows  6  feet  apart,  with  the  hills  alternating 
8  feet  apart  in  the  row;  6  hills  of  early  squash  (such  as  the 
Boston  Marrow),  6  by  6  feet;  12  hills  of  cucumbers,  6 by 6 feet; 
20  hills  of  muskmelons,  two  or  three  different  varieties,  6 
by  6  feet;  20  egg  plants,  2  feet  apart  in  the  row;  and  100  feet 
of  tomato  plants.    Late  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  and 


244  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Brussels  sprouts  may  occupy  the  space  made  vacant  by  the 
removal  of  the  early  crops,  such  as  lettuce,  radishes,  early 
peas,  and  string  beans.  On  the  border  of  a  garden,  an  as- 
paragus bed  25  feet  long  and  G  feet  wide  will  furnish  enough 
for  family  use.  Bordering  this,  about  a  dozen  clumps  of 
rhubarb  set  3  feet  apart  each  way  should  be  regarded  as  part 
of  the  permanent  garden.  Cold  frames  and  hotbeds  may  be 
set  along  the  border  next  to  these  perennial  plants.  Next  to 
the  hotbed  sage,  mint,  hyssop,  and  parsley  may  be  planted. 

Classes  of  Vegetables.  It  will  greatly  aid  the  beginner 
in  vegetable  culture  if  he  recognizes  certain  groups  or  classes 
and  is  familiar  with  their  requirements  for  successful  growth. 

Root  Crops.  Beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  radishes,  salsify, 
turnips,  rutabagas,  require  a  cool  season  in  a  deep  rich  soil. 
They  are  grown  in  drills  and  are  usually  not  transplanted. 
They  may  be  used,  though,  as  a  main-season  or  as  a  secondary 
crop.  They  are  hardy  and  require  no  special  skill  in  grow- 
ing them.  Loose,  deep  soil,  free  from  clods,  is  required  to 
grow  straight,  well-developed  roots.  Land  should  be  per- 
fectly drained,  not  only  to  remove  superfluous  moisture,  but 
to  provide  deep,  friable  soil.  A  sandy  loam  is  generally 
desirable,  provided  the  soil  is  not  likely  to  become  too  hot 
in  the  summer  time.  These  crops,  with  the  exception  of  the 
radish,  can  be  kept  in  an  ordinary  cellar  throughout  the  win- 
ter and  well  into  the  spring  by  packing  them  in  barrels  or 
boxes  in  damp  sand,  allowing  each  root  to  come  wholly  or 
partially  in  contact  with  the  sand. 

Bulb  Crops.  The  bulb  crops  including  onion,  leek,  garlic, 
and  chive,  are  very  hardy.  They  are  cool  weather  plants, 
demanding  unusually  careful  preparation  of  the  surface  soil 
at  time  of  seeding.  A  rich  friable  soil  with  an  abundance  of 
quickly  available  plant  food  is  essential.  These  crops  may  be 
planted  in  the  spring  as  early  as  the  ground  is  workable. 
The  seeds  are  sown  directly  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  in 
rows  from  11  to  13  inches  apart  for  hand  cultivation,  and 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  245 

2}^^  to  3  feet  apart  for  horse  cultivation.  For  early  onions, 
however,  there  has  arisen  within  the  last  few  years,  the  spe- 
cial practice  of  transplanting  the  seedlings  from  hotbeds. 

The  Cole  Crops.  Cabbage,  kale,  Brussels  sprouts,  cauli- 
flower, and  kohl-rabi,  are  hardy  and  demand  a  cool  season, 
a  deep,  cool  soil,  and  an  abundance  of  moisture  at  the  root 
and  should,  therefore,  receive  frequent  thorough  irrigation. 
They  will  not  endure  standing  water,  however,  closer  to  the 
surface  than  three  feet.  With  the  exception  of  kale  and 
kohl-rabi,  this  group  is  generally  started  in  seed  beds  and 
then  transplanted  to  the  garden  when  they  have  from  four 
to  six  leaves  on  a  plant.  In  the  northern  states  the  plants 
for  these  early  crops  are  started  in  the  hotbed  or  greenhouse 
from  the  last  of  February  to  the  last  of  March.  They  may 
be  transplanted  in  the  open  ground  April  15th  to  June  1st, 
depending  on  the  season  and  location,  in  fact  any  time  after 
the  land  can  be  prepared.  Often  late  cabbage  and  cauli- 
flower seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  hills  in  the  open  ground 
where  the  plants  are  to  mature.  In  either  case  the  plants 
are  grown  about  24  inches  apart  in  rows  3  feet  apart. 

The  Salad  Crops.  Lettuce,  endive,  chicory,  cress,  parsley, 
celery,  and  celeriac,  in  general  require  a  cool  moist  soil 
which  retains  a  large  amount  of  moisture  but  which  is,  never- 
theless, well-drained.  A  quick,  continuous  growth  is  nec- 
essary if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  These  crops  are 
often  benefited  by  a  special  application  of  quickly  available 
fertilizer,  such  as  well-rotted  manure,  harrowed  in  just 
before  the  plants  are  set.  Lettuce,  celery,  and  celeriac  are 
usually  handled  as  hotbed  or  seed  bed  crops  and  trans- 
planted to  the  gardoji,  while  the  remainder  of  this  group  are 
usually  planted  where  they  are  to  grow.  For  the  small 
home  garden  it  is  frequently  more  satisfactory  to  purchase 
these  plants  from  commercial  gardeners,  than  to  try  to  pro- 
duce them  at  home.  Lettuce,  endive,  chicory,  cress,  and 
parsley  may  be  planted  in  rows  about  18  inches  apart  with 


246  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

the  plants  10  to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Celery,  however, 
should  be  given  3  to  5  feet  between  the  rows,  depending 
upon  the  methods  used  in  blanching.  The  plants  may  stand 
6  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

The  Potherb  Crops  include  the  plants  used  as  greens.  Both 
salad  crops  and  greens  should  be  eaten  more  universally  by 
the  American  people  than  they  are.     They  aid  digestion  and 


Figure  93. — Raising  ioiture  tor  commercial  purposes. 

tone  up  the  system,  and  because  of  the  minerals  they  con- 
tain, especially  iron,  they  are  among  the  most  healthful  of 
vegetables.  We  should,  therefore,  use  them  much  more 
frequently  than  we  do. 

Greens  may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  first,  the  spring 
greens  that  require  a  cool  season  for  their  best  development; 
second,  those  that  can  endure  the  warm  season.  The  com- 
mon spring  greens  are  spinach  and  mustard;  the  summer 
greens  are  Swiss  chard.  New  Zealand  spinach,  kale,  collards, 
and  dandelion. 

Since  the  potherb  crops  are  grown  for  their  leaves,  they 
should  make  a  quick  continuous  growth  in  order  that  these 
may  be  crisp  and  tender.  This  means  that  the  soil  must  be 
in  excellent  condition,  well- watered,  and  with  an  abundance 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


247 


of  available  plant  food,  especially  nitrogen.  All  these  crops 
may  be  sown  in  early  spring.  The  cool-season  greens  will  be 
ready  for  use  before  the  hot  weather  and  the  warm-season 
crops  will  produce  greens  all  summer.  They  are  all  sown  in 
rows  from  one  to  three  feet  apart  except  New  Zealand  spin- 


w 

, 

i 

IS 

'' ' '^ '     t  '"iSs^^^^w" 

m^^^^^^^- 

'^^  ^^%^''"^' 

, 

■%fiy:^^                           ^^m.                      ^"^^^^^ 

\ 

^^ 

^'         ^^k.       "^1'  ' 

— 

:/ 

^^^^■p#;^^^^H 

Figure 


-Raising  celery  for  commercial  purposes. 


ach,  which  is  planted  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart  because 
of  its  spreading  habit.  The  summer  greens  should  be  so 
thinned  as  to  stand  from  six  inches  to  one  foot  apart  in  row. 
Solanaceous  Crops.  Tomatoes,  egg  plants,  peppers,  and 
husked  tomatoes  (ground  cherries)  are  susceptible  to  frost 
injury  and  thrive  best  on  the  light,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils 
with  a  warm  exposure.  As  this  group  is  killed  by  the  first 
frost  in  the  fall,  the  size  of  the  crop  depends  largely  upon  an 
early  start  of  the  plants  in  the  spring.  They  should,  there- 
fore, be  started  in  hotbeds,  frames,  greenhouses,  in  boxes 
in  the  kitchen  window  or  vigorous  plants  should  be  obtained 
from  a  local  gardener.  It  is  highly  important  that  the  young 
plants  be  kept  continuously  growing.  Therefore  they  need 
an  abundance  of  quickly  available  fertihzer.     This  can  best 


248  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

be  supplied  by  well  rotted  stable  manure.  This  group  is 
generally  grown  in  rows  about  3  or  4  feet  apart  and  2  or  3 
feet  between  the  plants  in  the  row.  These  crops  often  follow 
early  cabbage,  lettuce,  or  radishes. 

Cucurbitaceous  Crops.  These  crops  include  the  watermelon, 
muskmelon,  squash,  pumpkin,  and  cucumber.  These  annual 
plants  are  susceptible  to  frosts  and  require  a  very  warm  sea- 
son and  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  thriving  best  on  a  light, 
well-drained,  sandy  loam  soil.  They  are  long  seasoned 
crops  and  it  is  essential  that  they  receive  an  early  start  in 
the  spring  and  keep  growing  continually  to  mature  the  crop 
before  the  early  fall  frosts.  They  are  grown  in  hills  and  are 
usually  planted  in  the  field  where  they  are  to  mature.  This 
entire  group  is  transplanted  with  such  great  difficulty  that 
it  can  be  accomplished  only  by  planting  the  seed  in  pots  or 
boxes  and  not  disturbing  the  roots  in  transplanting.  This 
method  is  sometimes  followed  by  market  gardeners  in  ob- 
taining a  very  early  growth.  Pumpkins  and  squashes  may 
be  planted  6  to  8  feet  apart  each  way;  cucumbers,  musk- 
melons,  and  watermelons,  6  by  6  feet. 

Leguminous  Crops.  Leguminous  crops  in  the  garden  are 
chiefly  peas  and  beans.  While  the  bean  is  very  tender  to 
frost  injury,  the  pea  plant  is  exactly  the  opposite,  withstand- 
ing very  severe  frost.  Except  this  difference,  the  require- 
ments for  successful  culture  are  very  similar.  Only  a  med- 
ium rich  soil  is  required,  as  an  excessive  amount  of  plant  food 
tends  to  the  production  of  vine  at  the  expense  of  pods. 
Light,  sandy  to  gravelly  loam  is  desirable.  Plants  are  grown 
in  rows  about  3  feet  apart  with  plants  standing  6  or  8  to  the 
foot  in  the  row.  The  very  tall  peas  are  grown  on  some  form 
of  trellis,  as  chicken  wire  or  brush. 

Sweet  Corn.  Sweet  corn  is  grown  for  the  immature  ears 
which  are  eaten  when  the  grains  are  yet  soft.  While  this  is 
practically  unknown  in  other  sections  of  the  world,  it  is  one 
of  the  important  vegetable  crops  in  North  America.      Cul- 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


249 


tivatioii  of  sweet  corn  is  similar  to  that  of  field  corn  and  re- 
quires no  great  attention  or  skill.  If  possible,  early  and 
warm  soil  should  be  selected,  as  the  first  sweet  corn  for  the 
table  is  always  especially  appreciated.  It  is  generally  planted 
about  3  feet  apart  in  the  rows  and  the  plants  23/^  feet  to  3 
feet  in  the  row.  On  account  of  the  wide  range  of  maturity 
a  rather  continuous  succession  can  be  obtained  by  planting 
early,  medium,  and  late  kinds  at  the  same  time. 

Perennial  Crops.  These  consist  of  asparagus,  rhubarb, 
sage,  catnip,  horse-radish,  and  mint.  The  culture  of  these 
crops  differs  from  that  of  the  other  vegetable  crops  in 
that  they  are  more  or  less  permanent  fixtures  in  the  garden 
and  should  be  given  space  at  one  side  of  the  area  where  the 
customary  annual  plowing  and  tilling  will  not  interfere  with 
their  growth. 

TABLE  IX.  *— Amounts  of  Seed  for  100  Feet  and  Standard  Percent- 
ages of  Germination 


Vegetable 

Amt.  of  Seed 
for  100  Feet 

Per 
Cent 

Vegetable 

Amt.  of  Seed 
for  100  Feet 

Per 
Cent 

Asparagus.... 

66  roots 

80-85 

Onion  seed .  . 

1  OZ. 

80-85 

Beans,  String 

1  pint 

90-95 

Onion  sets. . . 

Iqt. 

80-85 

Beans,  Lima 

1  pint 

90-95 

Parsley 

1  pkt. 

70-75 

Beets 

2  oz. 

150 

Parsnip 

1  oz. 

70-75 

Cabbage .... 

•     1  pkt. 

90-95 

Peas 

1  to  2  pints 

93-98 

Carrot 

1  oz. 

80-85 

Pepper 

1  pkt. 

80-85 

Cauliflower. . 

1  pkt. 

80-85 

Potato  

6  to  7  lbs. 

Celery 

Hoz. 

60-65 

Pumpkin .... 

loz. 

85-90 

Chard,  Swiss 

2oz. 

Radish 

1  oz. 

90-95 

Corn,  Sweet. 

1  pint 

85-90 

Salsify 

1  oz. 

75-80 

Cucumber. . . 

1  oz. 

85-90 

Spinach 

1  oz. 

80-85 

Eggplant .... 

H  oz- 

75-80 

Squash 

1  oz. 

85-90 

Kohl-rabi .  . . 

1  pkt. 

Sweet  Potato 

3  to  4  lbs. 

Lettuce 

H  oz. 

85-90 

or  75  plants 

Mustard .... 

}i  oz. 

90-95 

Tomato 

2  pkts. 

85-90 

Muskmelon . 

1  oz. 

85-90 

Turnip 

H  oz. 

90-95 

Okra 

1  oz. 

80-85 

Watermelon . 

1  oz. 

85-90 

♦Adopted  from  Univ.  Ul.  Cir.  198,  p.  22,  1917. 


250  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Commercial  Gardening.  This  cliscni.ssion  of  vegetable  gar- 
dening has  been  taken  up  largely  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
home  vegetable  garden.  Vegetable  gardening  as  a  business 
is  a  profitable,  healthful  vocation  for  such  persons  as  are 
especially  adapted  to  intensive  agriculture.  It  requires  very 
close  attention  to  details  and  only  the  most  energetic  workers 
will  be  successful  in  this  business.  Such  workers,  with  a 
good  market,  will  be  amply  repaid  for  their  skill  and  labor. 

QUESTIONS 

1 .  Discuss  the  preparation  and  management  of  soil  for  the  produc- 

tion of  good  quality  vegetables. 

2.  Submit  a  plan  for  a  home  vegetable  garden,  for  the  average  family. 

3.  Give  the  general  cultural  requirements  for  the  following  different 

groups  of  vegetable  crops: 

Root   crops,  cole   crops,  salad  crops,  solanaceous  crops,  cu- 
curbitaceous  crops. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.     Building  a  Hotbed:     Before  the  ground  freezes  in  the  fall,   dig 

a  pit  six  feet  square  and  thirty  inches  deep.    This  pit  should  be 

dug  on  the  south  side  of  a  building,  or  in  any  place  protected 

from  cold  winds  and  yet  open  to  the  sun  all  day.     Fill  the  pit 

•  with  leaves  or  straw  to  keep  the  snow  and  frost  out. 

Secure  some  two-inch  planks  and  build  a  frame  six  feet  square. 
Build  it  with  the  board  on  one  side  six  inches  wider  than  the 
board  on  the  opposite  side.  The  frame  will  then  slope  toward 
the  sun  and  get  more  light.  The  end  boards  should  be  cut 
diagonally  to  fit  to  side  boards.  Set  the  frame  on  stakes  over 
the  pit  in  such  a  way  that  the  bottom  of  the  frame  will  be 
even  with  the  top  of  the  ground.  Be  sure  that  the  lower  side 
of  the  frame  is  toward  the  south. 

About  March  15,  have  the  pit  filled  solidly  by  means  of  tram- 
pling, to  within  six  inches  of  the  top  with  heated  manure.  (Any 
farmer  can  furnish  heated  manure  on  two  weeks'  notice.) 
Cover  the  manure  with  six  inches  of  good  soil.  Now  cover 
the  frame  with  two  hotbed  sashes  which  are  made  three  feet 
wide  and  six  feet  long.  (Any  carpenter  can  make  them.) 
Get  a  good  Fahrenheit  thermometer  and  thrust  it  through 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  251 

the  soil  into  the  manure.  The  temperature  may  rise  as  high 
as  120**  F.  within  the  next  few  days.  When  the  temperature 
goes  down  to  90°  F.,  the  bed  is  ready  for  seed  sowing. 

Growing  Plants  in  a  Hotbed:  When  the  hotbed  described  in 
Exercise  1  is  ready  for  seed  sowing,  divide  it  into  two  parts. 
First  see  that  the  soil  is  well  broken  up  and  smoothed.  With 
a  pointed  stick,  make  shallow  trenches  about  eight  inches  apart 
across  the  bed  from  north  to  south.  In  one  side  of  the  bed  plant 
a  fewrowseach  of 'Trench  Breakfast"  and ''Scarlet  Globe"  varie- 
ties of  radishes  and  *  'Grand  Rapids' '  leaf  lettuce.  Sow  thickly  and 
cover  with  about  ^  inch  of  soil,  tamping  lightly  over  the  rows. 
In  the  other  side  of  the  bed,  plant  in  a  similar  way  seeds  of 
"Stone"  tomatoes  and  "Early  Jersey  Wakefield"  cabbage. 
When  an  inch  high,  thin  out  the  radishes  to  one  inch  apart, 
and  the  tomatoes  and  cabbages  to  three  or  four  inches  apart. 

The  soil  should  be  well-watered  but  only  on  bright,  sunny  morn- 
ings. While  the  weather  is  cold,  keep  the  glass  covered  at 
night  with  straw  or  burlap  but  remove  the  covering  when 
the  sun  is  shining.  During  March  and  part  of  April  the  sash 
should  be  lifted  at  the  end  away  from  the  wind  during  the 
hottest  part  of  day  and  closed  before  it  becomes  chilly  in  the 
afternoon.  As  the  days  get  warmer  and  longer,  the  sash 
may  be  lifted  farther  and  kept  up  longer  during  the  day  until 
finally  they  are  left  off  altogether  during  both  day  and  night. 

The  radishes  and  lettuce  will  be  ready  to  eat  in  from  three  to 
four  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting. 

Transplanting  Tomatoes  and  Cabbages  from  the  Hotbed:  In  the 
spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough,  prepare  a  small  piece 
of  ground  in  the  garden,  by  spading  twice  and  then  raking 
smooth.  Mark  off  the  garden  each  way  in  rows  three  feet 
apart.  When  all  danger  of  frost  is  over,  it  is  time  to  transplant 
the  plants  from  the  hotbed.  Dig  up  each  plant  separately  with 
a  large  ball  of  dirt  on  the  roots.  Take  the  plants  immediately 
to  the  garden  and  plant  them  at  once  in  order  to  prevent  wilt- 
ing. At  the  intersection  of  row  marks  in  the  garden,  dig  a  hole 
deep  enough  to  permit  the  plants'  being  set  about  three  inches 
deeper  than  they  were  in  the  hotbed.  Fill  the  hole  up  with 
soil  and  press  it  in  firmly  with  the  hands  all  around  the  plant. 
Water  each  plant  thoroughly  soon  after  planted.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  the  soil  be  firmly  packed  around  the  roots  of  the 
plant,  since,  if  the  soil  is  loose,  there  will  be  air  spaces  left 
and  the  roots  will  dry  out  and  the  plant  will  probably  die. 


252  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

In  a  row  by  themselves  set  a  few  plants  loosely  without  any 
firming  of  the  soil.     Watch  for  a  few  days. 

REFERENCES 

Garden  Farming,     Corbett. 

Garden  Making,     Bailey. 

Encyclopedia  of  Practical  Horticulture,     Lowther. 

Vegetable  Growing,     Boyle. 

Manual  of  Gardening,     Bailey. 

Productive  Vegetabfe  Growing,     Lloyd. 

The  Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening,     Bailey. 

The  Small  Garden  Useful,     Curtis. 

Vegetable  Gardening,     Green. 

Onions,  Ralph  Jordan. 

Vegetable  Gardening,     Watts. 

Standard  Encyclopedia  of  Horticulture,     Bailey. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.     818.     The  Small  Vegetable  Garden. 

841.     Home    and  Community    Drying    of    Fruits   and 
Vegetables. 

853.     Home  Canning  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables. 

871.     Fresh   Fruits  and    Vegetables    as    Conservers    of 
Other  Food. 

879.     Home  Storage  of  Vegetables. 

936.  The  City  and  Suburban  Vegetable  Garden. 

937.  The  Farm  Garden  in  the  North. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
PASTURES 

A  pasture  is  any  land  from  which  hve  stock  gather  feed 
for  themselves.  It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  areas 
are  made  by  man  or  by  nature,  nor  does  it  matter  what  the 
nature  of  plants  may  be  so  long  as  they  are  food  plants. 

Permanent  and  Temporary  Pastures.  An  area  naturally 
covered  with  the  pasture  crop  or  land  continuously  used 
for  stock  grazing  is  spoken  of  as  permanent  pasture.  These 
permanent  pastures  are  either  range  land — largely  mountains 
in  the  West — or  meadows. 

The  meadows  and  fields  cared  for  by  man,  and  renewed 
occasionally — regularly  or  irregularly — are  temporary  past- 
ures. They  consist  either  of  fields  left  sown  for  a  number 
of  years  or  for  one  or  two  seasons,  and  of  stubble  fields. 

Quality  of  Pastures.  The  best  pastures  are  thoroughly 
and  evenly  covered  with  plants  that  form  such  sod  as  not  to 
be  injured  by  the  tramping  of  animals  or  by  their  biting  off  the 
top  of  the  plants.  These  plants  ought  to  be  palatable  and 
fine  to  encourage  the  animals  to  eat  a  sufficient  quantity,  and 
nutritious  in  order  that  the  quantity  eaten  may  nourish  the 
body  and  supply  energy  for  their  work  whether  drawing  loads, 
growing  wool,  or  producing  milk.  The  pasture  needs  to  be 
green  a  large  part  of  the  year  and  yield  a  large  amount  of  feed. 

Importance.  About  one  third  of  all  the  improved  farm 
land  in  the  United  States  is  in  pasture.  In  the  West,  the 
range  land  exceeds  •  several  times  in  area  the  farm  land,  a 
part  of  which,  perhaps  a  third  or  more,  is  temporarj^  pasture. 
Many  western  valleys  are  so  dry  that  they  cannot  be 
classed  as  grazing  lands,  although  sheep  feed  over  them  and 
the  arid  foothills. 

253 


254  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Immense  droves  of  sheep  and  cattle  formerly  grazed  over 
the  intermountain  region.  The  day  of  cattle  kings  is  pass- 
ing rapidly  where  it  is  not  now  already  gone,  but  forest  re- 
serves still  furnish  pasture  for  almost  countless  horses,  cattle, 


Figure  97. — A  picture  of  conteuLuient.     k\\  antrit., 

and  sheep.  Grazing,  however,  lasts  only  during  the  summer. 
The  animals  removed  from  the  range  lands  are  turned  into 
the  mountain  meadows  and  stubble  fields  to  pick  at  the 
ungathered  plant  parts.  Then  they  winter  on  meadows, 
supplemented  with  a  partial  ration  of  hay. 

The  convenience  of  a  pasture  in  which  to  turn  animals, 
especially  during  haying  and  harvest,  is  of  considerable  value. 
Much  labor  is  also  saved. 

Wild  Plants.  Native  grasses,  together  with  rushes  and 
sedges,  largely  compose  these  meadows.  •  Sedges  and  rushes 
grow  abundantly  in  the  wet  valley  bottoms  and  sloughs. 
These  supply  nmch  second-class  feed  on  the  wet  lands.  Salt 
grass  and  water  grasses  also  grow  in  similar  places  making 
finer  hay  and  better  feed  than  rushes  or  sedges. 


PASTURES 


255 


Bunch  grasses,  lupines,  wild  vetch,  and  numerous  other 
plants  are  found  on  the  ranges.  Sheep  get  considerable 
grazing  from  sagebrush,  shadscale,  greasewood,  oaks,  choke- 
cherry,  and  other  green  growing  shrubbery. 


Figure  98. — A  woodland  pasture.      (Warren.) 

Crop  Plants.  Kentucky  and  Canada  blue  grasses,  tim- 
othy, redtop,  smooth  brome  grass,  orchard  grass,  tall  meadow 
fescue,  Itahan  and  perennial  rye  grasses,  tall  meadow  oat 
grass,  and  red,  white,  and  alsike  clovers  are  all  used  in  tempo- 
rary pastures.  In  addition  to  these,  alfalfa,  the  small  grains 
(with  and  without  a  mixture  of  peas,  vetch,  or  cowpeas), 
corn,  and  millets  are  used  to  varying  extent  in  different 
localities. 

In  general,  these  yield  more  palatable  and  more  abundant 
feed  than  the  native  grasses.  Except  redtop,  they  thrive 
best  on  well-drained  soils  that  are  fairly  rich  in  lime.  Blue 
grass  and  the  rye  grasses  need  much  moisture. 

Mixed  Plants.  There  are  several  benefits  derived  from 
mixtures  for  pastures.  (1)  They  usually  render  more  possible 
a  continuous  growth  from  early  spring  to  late  fall.  (2)  They 
usually  increase  the  yield,  as  they  can  be  made  to  feed  in  dif- 


256  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE- 

ferent  soils  or  during  different  seasons  of  the  year.  (3)  They 
render  the  feed  more  palatal)le  on  account  of  variety,  and  more 
nutritious  particularly  if  the  grasses  have  legumes  sown  with 
them.  (4)  The  legumes  aid  in  keeping  up  the  fertihty.  (5)  Deep 
rooting  aids  in  loosening  up  the  subsoil,  thus  promoting  drain- 
age and  increasing  available  moisture.  (6)  A  plant  that  estab- 
lishes itself  in  one  season,  when  mixed  with  one  requiring  two 
or  more  years,  yields  feed  until  the  other  can  get  well  started. 

Just  what  mixture  to  use  is  always  a  question.  There 
are  all  variations  within  a  given  mixture,  according  to  the 
land,  to  the  animals  pastured,  and  to  the  fancy  of  the  owner. 

The  Utah  Experiment  Station  reports  these  three  mix- 
tures of  seed  for  sowing: 

For  bench  lands  under  irrigation: 

Kentucky  blue  grass. . .  12  pounds  White  clover 2  pounds 

Smooth  brome  grass.  .  .  8       "  Red  clover 2  •     " 

Perennial  rye  grass ....  6       "  Alfalfa 2       " 

Orchard  grass 3       " 

For  light  sandy  soils  under  irrigation: 

Kentucky  blue  grass. . .  8  pounds      Smooth  brome  grass.  . .  8  pounds 

Meadow  fescue 12       "  White  clover 2       " 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass.  5       " 

For  low,  wet  lands  (as  sloughs): 

Perennial  rye  grass ....  8  pounds      Meadow  fescue 2  pounds 

Redtop 10       "  Alsike  clover 5       " 

Rhode  Island  bent  grass  4       "  White  clover 2       " 

Various  experiments  on  dry-farms  show  that  smooth 
brome  grass  is  the  only  successful  pasture  grass.  Alfalfa 
is  sometimes  used  for  dry-farm  pasture,  particularly  when 
either  the  first  or  second  crop  promises  to  be  too  small  to 
pay  for  cutting.  Many  farmers  turn  the  animals  on  stubble 
to  gather  remnants  which  would  dry  up  and  hence  be  lost 
by  blowing  away.  Pastures  on  dry-farms  seem  to  be  more 
suitable  for  horses  than  for  other  animals. 

For  Different  Animals.  Horses  do  better  on  dry  pastures 
than  other  animals,  because  they  need  rather  large  fields  to 
afford  exercise.    They  do  not  eat  so  close  to  the  ground  as  to 


PASTURES 


257 


injure  the  root  crowns  of  alfalfa.  They  can  also  get  on  with 
less  water  than  other  animals,  but  need  it  regularly;  and 
they  do  not  bloat  easily  as  do  sheep  and  cattle. 


Figure  99. — Rocky  land  can  often  be  best  used  for  pasture.     (Warren.) 

Cattle  need  a  more  succulent  feed  and  more  water  than 
horses;  therefore  green  pastures  are  more  valuable,  par- 
ticularly for  milch  cows.  As  cattle  eat  rapidly,  they  bloat, 
especially  on  alfalfa  wet  with  dew.  Since  horses  worry 
cows,  both  ought  not  to  be  grazed  in  the  same  pasture  at 
the  same  time. 

Sheep  do  best  on  small  pastures  used  in  rotation,  in  order 
to  keep  down  parasites.  Shading  is  valuable  to  sheep,  as  is 
also  fine  feed.  Resistant  sod  is  preferable,  as  they  eat  close 
and  injure  the  root  of  aKalfa  and  some  grasses.  If  there  are 
no  trees  in  the  field,  sheds  should  be  provided  to  give  shelter 
from  the  sun. 

Hogs  do  well  on  small  pastures,  because  they  require  little 
food  at  one  time.  Shade  and  water  in  the  feed  lot  are  impor- 
tant. As  soon  as  one  lot  is  eaten  off,  the  hogs  should  be 
moved  into  another,  with  abundant  feed.  They  should  not 
be  allowed  to  waste  feed  by  tramping  it  down. 

17— 


258 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Pouliry  also  do  better  with  access  to  green  feed. 
Improvement  of  Pastures.    Land  not  easily  handled  in 
the  regular  cropping  system  is  usually  grazed.     The  rocky 


JMm 

i 

'^'•^ 

"^^W    - 

"SiMi^-  ■;■■ 

^0-^, 
' 

Figure  100. — A  stump  pasture.     (Warren.) 

and  very  rough  areas  will,  for  a  long  time  at  least,  be  left  in 
pasture,  as  not  much  else  can  be  done  with  them.  Remov- 
ing many  rocks  is  rather  expensive. 

Draining  will  much  improve  meadows  that  are  too  wet 
in  the  spring  or  throughout  the  entire  season.  Some  spots 
may  be  too  dry.  A  combination  of  drainage  and  irrigation 
can  remedy  this  condition.  Brush  lands  generally  need 
partial  or  entire  clearing  before  they  become  good  pastures. 

Rushes  and  sedges  tend  to  give  way  slowly  to  the  more 
valuable  grasses  after  the  lands  are  drained.  Plowing  and 
resowing  may  substitute  this  slow  method. 

The  bunches  of  grass  that  occur  everywhere  are  rejected 
forage  around  a  spiny  weed,  such  as  a  thistle,  or  around  a 
manure  dropping  which  seems  to  taint  the  grass  or  drive  off 
the  animals  by  its  odor.    Harrowing  two  or  more  times  a 


PA8TURE8  259 

year  with  brush  or  spike-tooth  harrows,  or  even  disking, 
loosens  the  soil  and  scatters  the  manure.  The  harrow, 
supplemented  by  a  grubbing  hoe,  removes  the  weeds  that 
offend  the  cattle.  Now,  however,  that  Canada  thistles 
have  entered  the  mountain  states,  some  attention  ought  to 
be  paid  to  weeding  pastures.  They  are  very  troublesome  in 
sod,  since  they  spread  by  underground  stems  as  well  as  by 
seed.     They  are  extremely  hard  to  eradicate. 

Poor  stands  may  be  made  thicker  by  harrowing  and  by 
sowing  extra  seed. 

Overstocking  causes  too  close  grazing,  which  injures  the 
pasture  as  well  as  the  animal.  The  remedy  is  manifestly 
one  of  prevention.  Fertilizers,  particularly  farm  manure, 
increase  the  yield,  if  they  be  well -scattered.  In  the  West, 
however,  few  persons  would  advocate  commercial  fertilizers. 

Constant  use,  even  when  unaccompanied  by  overstock- 
ing, is  bad.     Two  or  three  pastures  prevent  this  injury. 

The  number  of  animals  that  may  pasture  a  field  and  the 
time  they  should  feed  on  it  deserve  consideration.  Strong 
sod  will  bear  close  grazing  longer  than  weak.  Timothy, 
orchard  grass,  and  the  clovers,  except  the  white,  suffer  im- 
mediately. The  blue  grasses,  redtop,  the  sedges,  and  the 
rushes  are  rather  persistent  and  will  withstand  considerable 
close  feeding.  It  is  probably  economical  to  graze  firm  sod 
closely,  since  bunches  are  thereby  prevented  and  stalks  not 
allowed  to  become  tough  from  being  mature. 

Rotation.  It  is  doubtful  whether  meadows  should  re- 
main longer  than  a  few  years  without  being  plowed.  The 
plants  weaken,  the  soil  texture  breaks  down,  and  parasites 
may  accumulate  until  the  old  sod  is  a  menace.  The  most 
successful  meadows  are  a  part  of  the  farm  rotation.  In 
its  turn,  every  four  to  ten  years,  the  meadow  is  moved  to  the 
advantage  of  the  plant,  the  soil,  the  animal,  and  the  farmer. 

One  meadow  should  not  always  be  grazed  by  one  kind 
of  animal.     Feeding  habits  differ  enough  to  be  a  factor  in 


260  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

pasture  management.  With  a  large  field,  it  is  ordinarily 
better  to  use  only  part  of  it  at  a  time  and  so  to  rotate  the 
animals  that  they  are  not  mixed.  Dairy  cows  should  not  be 
worried  by  horses  nor  be  in  contact  with  the  wallows  of  hogs. 

A  part  of  the  pasture  should  be  allowed  to  go  unused  at 
times.  It  needs  a  rest  which  permits  the  plants  to  grow  up 
and  keep  green. 

Parts  of  the  meadow  will  not  be  eaten  down,  having 
bunches  of  coarse-stemmed  grass.  The  mower  should  be 
run  over  these  spots  at  least  twice  a  year.  The  coarse 
stems  make  better  hay  than  pasture.  Often  horses  and 
cattle  will  pick  up  the  clipped  stems,  although  they  avoid 
them  while  standing. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  pasture?     Give  kinds. 

2.  Why  is  sod  needed  in  pastures? 

3.  Why  does  grass  grow  more  rapidly  after  being  nipped  off  than 

does  alfalfa  or  clover? 

4.  Who  owns  the  best  pasture  in  your  neighborhood?     Describe  it. 

What  care  is  given  to  it? 

5.  Give  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  pasture  mixtures. 

6.  Why  do  cows  need  a  greener  pasture  than  horses? 

7.  Why  should  pastures  be  on  the  poorer  land? 

8.  Why  is  it  good  to  rotate  the  animals  for  pasturing? 

9.  Why  rotate  the  meadow?     Does  it  always  pay?     When?     When 

not? 
10.     Give  the  chief  points  to  keep  in  mind  in  handling  hogs  and  sheep 
on  pasture. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  a  pasture.     Are  there  any  bunches  in  it?    How  might  they 

be  removed? 

2.  Examine  a  pasture  in  detail.     Find  the  reasons  for  irregular 

growth.  How  large  is  the  pasture?  Have  many  animals  pas- 
tured on  it?  What  inexpensive  improvements  could  be  made? 
Are  the  gates  in  the  best  places?    Is  the  fence  properly  cared  for? 

3.  Visit  good  and  poor  pastures.    Compare  them. 


PASTURES  261 

4.  Make  a  map  of  your  neighborhood.  Mark  on  it  the  pasture  areas. 
Indicate  the  good  and  poor  ones  by  different  markings.  Ac- 
count for  them. 

REFERENCES 

Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges,  Barnes. 

Meadows  and  Pastures,  Wing. 

Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  Spillman. 

Grasses  and  How  to  Grow  Them,  Shaw. 

Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,  Piper. 

Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  Hunt. 

Field  Crops,  Wilson  and  Warburton. 

Field  Crop  Production,  Livingston. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart 

Alfalfa  in  America,  Wing. 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa,  Coburn. 

Forage  Crops,  Vorhees. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
WEEDS 

At  the  outset  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  the  plan 
of  nature  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  weed.  As  so  often 
stated,  every  plant  wars  with  every  other  plant  for  oppor- 
tunity to  live ;  it  is  a  life-and-death  struggle.  It  is  only  when 
we  come  to  consider  the  plant  in  relation  to  man  that  the 
term  ''weed"  comes  into  existence.  If  it  could  be  realized 
and  appreciated  that  in  nature  each  plant  plays  its  part  and 
each  has  its  aesthetic  characters,  weed  extermination  would 
hardly  be  carried  on  by  man  in  the  sullen  spirit  often  seen. 

What  Is  a  Weed?  A  weed  may  be  designated  as  a  plant 
which  is  deemed  undesirable.  ''It  is  a  plant  out  of  place. '* 
Other  designations  of  weeds  are:  "Any  injurious,  trouble- 
some, or  unsightly  plant  that  is  at  the  same  time  useless  or 
comparatively  so."  "A  plant  which  interferes  with  the 
growth  of  the  crop  to  which  the  field  is  temporarily  devoted." 
Accordingly,  barley  plants  in  the  wheat  field,  wheat  plants 
in  the  barley  field,  if  not  wanted,  must  be  designated  as  weeds. 
Furthermore,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  a  crop  may  be  a 
weed  unto  itself.  Often  the  producer  has  too  many  plants 
standing  on  a  certain  area  for  the  best  yield.  The  apple, 
the  pear,  the  peach  tree  are  seen  often  so  heavily  loaded,  that 
one  individual  fruit  acts  as  a  weed  to  the  other.  Why  is  the 
fruit  thinned  by  the  wise  horticulturist? 

Injury  Done  by  Weeds.  The  injuries  by  weeds  are  many 
and  of  various  kinds.  Among  the  injuries  produced  may  be 
mentioned  the  reduction  of  soil  fertility.  Plant  foods  that 
are  needed  for  the  crop  arc  in  part  used  by  the  weeds;  the 
result  is  a  lessened  yield.  Another  serious  injury  is  that  of 
robbing  the  soil  of  the  moisture  which  is  necessary  for  crop 

2G2 


WEEDS 


263 


production.  When  it  is  realized  tluit  a  corn  plant,  according 
to  Haberlandt  of  Germany,  may  transpire,  during  a  single 
growing  season,  30  pounds  of  water,  a  hemp  plant  60  pounds, 
and  a  sunflower  135  pounds,  some  idea  is  gained  as  to  how 

nuich  water  may  pass 
from  the  soil  through 
plants.  According  to 
Dr.  Duggar,  one  of  the 
foremost  plant  phys- 
iologists of  the  United 
States,  the  amounts 
given  are  in  general 
too  low  for  conditions 
in  our  own  country.  If 
this  statement  is  ac- 
cepted, then  how  much 
too  low  must  the  fig- 
ures be  for  conditions 
in  the  arid  West? 

Weeds  also  exert 
injury  by  crowding 
and  shading,  thereby 
causing  the  plants  of 
the  desired  crop  to 
grow  slender  and  ab- 
normally small.  The 
presence  of  some  kinds  of  weeds  makes  the  harvesting  of 
the  crop  very  difficult  and  expensive.  Such  weeds  are  the 
dreaded  Russian  thistle,  which  is  becoming  all  too  abundant 
in  the  arid  West,  the  wild  buckwheat,  and  the  wild  morning- 
glory.  Other  weeds  are  very  noxious,  because  they  harbor 
parasitic  fungi  that  attack  the  cultivated  crop.  Such  are  the 
mustard,  which  harbors  the  organism  causing  clubroot  of 
cabbage,  and  the  white  rust  of  radish  and  salsify.  Some 
weeds  are  poisonous  to  man  and  animals,  while  others  give 


Figure  101. — A  Russian  thistle. 


264  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

the  animal  troul)le  in  eating.  An  example  of  the  latter  is 
the  common  squirreltail,  the  awns  of  which  enter  the  gums 
of  animals  and  cause  ulcerations. 

Duration.  By  duration  is  meant  the  length  of  hfe  of  the 
plants.  Weeds  classified  under  this  head  are  annuals,  winter- 
annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials.  Anntmls  are  plants  that 
have  but  one  growing  season,  such  as  cowcockle,  sunflower, 
Russian  thistle,  and  cocklebur.  Winter-annuals  are  such 
as  the  common  shepherd's-purse  whose  seeds  germinate  in 
the  fall,  the  plant  completing  its  growth  the  following  spring 
and  summer.  Biennial  weeds  are  those  whose  existence 
embraces  two  growing  seasons.  The  first  season  the  plant 
produces  only  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  while  the  second  it 
produces  flowers  and  fruit.  Common  examples  are  the  bull 
thistle,  wild  carrot,  and  burdock.  Such  weeds  never  appear 
in  lands  properly  cultivated  and  plowed  every  year.  Peren- 
nials live  more  than  two  years.  They  continue  to  produce 
seed  year  after  year.  Common  examples  are  the  morning- 
glory  and  the  dandelion. 

Dissemination  of  Weeds.  By  dissemination  is  meant 
dispersal,  or  scattering.  It  is  readily  seen  how  important 
it  is  to  the  existence  of  the  weed  that  this  should  occur,  if 
we  remember  that  the  mother  plant  has  been  absorbing  food 
material  from  the  soil  during  its  growth  and  development 
and  has  probably  given  off  poisonous  substances  from  its 
roots,  all  of  which  go  to  make  the  soil  more  or  less  unfavorable, 
temporarily  at  least,  for  the  production  of  more  plants  of 
the  same  kind.  Hence,  if  the  seeds  are  disseminated  to  new 
regions,  the  chances  for  survival  are  better  and  thus  a  weed 
is  not  very  likely  to  become  a  weed  unto  itself. 

The  dissemination  of  weed  seeds  is  accomplished  by  var- 
ious agencies,  some  of  the  most  important  of  which  are  wind, 
water,  animal,  and  man.  It  is  common  to  see  dandelion 
and  milkweed  seeds  floating  through  the  air,  wafted  here 
and  there  by  the  breezes.     Every  country  boy  has  often  seen 


WEEDS  265 

piles  of  tumble  weeds  heaped  up  along  some  fence  row.  It 
is  almost  inconceivable  how  many  seeds  have  been  scattered 
as  the  plants  rolled  along  the  way.  When  it  is  recalled  how 
wild  oats  spread  from  field  to  field,  and  how  the  sweet  clover 
and  cocklebur  spring  up  along  the  ditch  banks,  good  illus- 
trations are  shown  of  the  work  of  water  in  scattering  weeds. 


Figure  102. — Field  bindweed. 

One  who  has  occasion  to  remove  burs  of  the  cocklebur 
and  burdock  from  the  hairy  coat  of  the  dog,  or  from  the 
horse's  mane  and  tail  cannot  fail  to  appreciate  how  effective 
animals  may  be  as  carriers  of  weed  seeds.  Animals,  how- 
ever, are  also  very  effective  in  weed  dispersal  in  a  manner 
usually  not  so  evident  as  illustrated  above.  They  eat  seeds 
which  are  not  digested  and  which  pass  through  the  alimen- 
tary tract  without  injury.  Often  by  this  method  weeds 
are  carried  great  distances  into  new  regions. 

Man  himself  is  fundamentally  very  much  at  fault  as  an 
agent  in  weed  dispersal.  The  tools  with  which  he  works  his 
land,  the  machines  that  do  the  threshing  and  other  crop 
work  are  often  taken  from  field  to  field  uncleaned.  Morally 
speaking,  man  himself  is  very  much  to  blame  for  present 
conditions,  in  that  he  buys  and  sells  impure  seed.     Seed  of 


266 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


some  particular  crop  is  purchased  in  some  other  state  and 
with  this  seed  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  many  other  seeds 
present,  some  of  which  are  persistent  weeds.  The  grower 
takes  no  notice  of  these,  and  only  a  year  or  so  follows  until 

he  realizes  that  a  serious  draw- 
back to  a  good  crop  lies  in  his 
own  careless  actions.  The  con- 
dition can  be  remedied  only  by 
greater  watchfulness  and  care  on 
the  part  of  both  the  producer 
and  the  seller. 

Weed  Laws.  Laws  may  be 
and  should  be  passed  for  the 
destruction  of  weeds,  but  the 
farmers  should  not  fail  to  appre- 
ciate that  they  can  do  much 
themselves  by  concerted  and  en- 
ergetic action.  Weed  laws  should 
embrace  a  number  of  important 
points  and  should  be  passed  only 
after  careful  consideration .  Laws , 
under  some  circumstances,  give 
no  help  but  have  a  tendency  to 
suppress  local  efforts  in  farming 
communities.  Inspection  of  seed 
would  do  much  to  improve  weed  as  well  as  seed  conditions. 
Rural  high  schools  and  farmers'  organizations  might  do 
much  good  by  a  little  wisely  directed  effort. 

Extermination.  In  extermination,  any  method  adopted 
must  depend  upon  the  nature  and  habit  of  the  plant,  the  soil, 
and  the  location.  All  annuals  may  be  destroyed  in  culti- 
vated lands  by  any  method  which  hastens  germination  and 
prevents  seeding.  Biennials  should  be  out  off  below  the 
crown.  Where  plowing  is  impossible,  mowing  may  be  re- 
sorted to,  but  usually   the  plant  will  be  induced  by  this 


Figure  103. — Mustard. 


WEEDS  267 

method  to  shoot  out  and  become  more  troublesome,  pi-oviding 
repeated  mowing  is  not  continued.  The  perennials  are,  gen- 
erally speaking,  the  most  troublesome  of  weeds.  This  fact 
is  due  to  the  peculiar  habit  of  many  to  produce  roots  and 
underground  stems,  which,  when  severed,  will  produce  a 
new  plant.  A  single  plowing  often  makes  the  weeds  in  this 
class  more  pernicious.  We  must  here  resort  to  special  meth- 
ods. For  details  of  which  one  of  the  weed  manuals  listed 
at  the  end  of  this  chapter  should  be  consulted. 

One  of  our  specialists  on  weeds  has  tersely  given  the  key- 
note to  weed  extermination  under  the  following  few  general 
principles: 

1.  There  is  no  weed  known  which  cannot  be  eradicated 
by  constant  attention,  if  the  nature  of  the  growth  is  under- 
stood. 

2.  Never  allow  weeds  to  ripen. 

3.  Cultivate  frequently,  particularly  early  in  the  sea- 
son, so  as  to  destroy  seedlings. 

4.  Many  weed  seeds  can  be  induced  to  germinate  in 
autumn  by  cultivating  stubbles  immediately  after  harvest. 
Most  of  these  seedlings  will  be  winter  killed  or  can  easily  be 
disposed  of  by  plowing  or  cultivating  in  the  spring. 

5.  All  weeds  bearing  mature  seeds  should  be  burned. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  they  be  plowed  under. 

6.  All  weeds  can  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  ordinary 
implements  of  the  farm — the  plow,  the  cultivator,  the  har- 
row, the  spade,  and  the  hoe. 

7.  Be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  prevent  new  weeds 
from  becoming  established. 

8.  It  might  also  be  added  that  it  is  often  advisable  to 
practice  rotation  of  crops,  and  also  to  destroy  weeds  by  the 
use  of  herbicides. 

Sprajdng.  Much  experimentation  in  extermination  of 
weeds  by  herbicides  has  been  carried  on  both  is  this  country 
and  in  Europe.     Success  has  followed  in  some  cases. 


268  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Some  of  the  most  successful  herbicides  together  with 
their  proper  usage  are  as  follows: 

Copper  Sulphate  (blue  vitriol),  12  pounds  to  50  gallons  of 
water.  Spray  in  dry  weather.  This  spray  destroys  leaves 
of  burdock,  prickly  lettuce,  common  mustard,  prostrate  pig- 
weed, and  goosefoot. 

Iron  Sulphate  (green  vitriol),  100  pounds  to  50  gallons. 
Spray  before  weeds  are  in  bloom.  This  spray  destroys  dan- 
delion, dooryard  knotgrass,  purslane,  yarrow,  sorrel,  large 
ragweed,  hedge  mustard,  sourdock,  smartweed,  mustard, 
velvetleaf,  small  ragweed,  lamb's-quarters,  peppergrass,  sow 
thistle,  bull  thistle,  wild  carrot,  pigweed,  shepherd 's-purse, 
and  spurge. 

Carbolic  Acid.  One  part  to  four  parts  water.  Thorough- 
ly agitate.  Use  along  walks.  This  spray  kills  pigweed, 
smartweed  and  pigeon  grass. 

For  further  details  on  the  use  of  herbicides  consult  Pam- 
melPs  ''Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  weed? 

2.  How  do  weeds  injure  crops? 

3.  Classify  them. 

4.  In  what  ways  are  weeds  spread? 

5.  Discuss  weed  laws. 

6.  Give  the  best  methods  of  exterminating  weeds. 

7.  Give  the  principal  points  concerning  spraying  to  kill  weeds. 

8.  List  the  common  weeds  of  the  neighborhood. 

9.  Wherein  may  weeds  be  beneficial? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  The  instructor  will  mix  up  one  or  two  gallons  of  one  of  the  spray 

mixtures  given  on  this  page  of  the  text.  Obtain  a  small  hand 
sprayer  and  spray  a  plot  of  ground  that  is  covered  with  weeds. 
Note  the  kinds  of  weeds  and  record  the  effects  of  the  spray. 
Tabulate  the  results. 

2.  Dig  up  by  the  root  some  Canada  thistle,  morning-glory,  or  other 

weed  that  spreads  underground.    Note  that  on  the  root  stalks 


WEEDS  269 

are  buds.     These  send  up  new  stems.     Compare  these  with 
the  roots  of  annual  weeds. 

REFERENCES 

Farm  Weeds  of  Canada,  Clark  and  Fletcher. 

Manual  of  Weeds,  Georgia. 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  and  Garden,  Pammel. 

Weeds,  Shaw. 

Any  textbook  of  botany. 

Agronomy,  Clute. 

Principles  of  Agronomy,  Harris  and  Stewart. 

Farmer's  Bulletins: 

No.  279.     A  Method  of  Eradicating  Johnson  Grass. 

306.     Dodder  in  Relation  to  Farm  Seeds. 

368.     The  Eradication  of  Bindweed,  or  Wild  Morning-glory 

660.     Weeds:  How  to  Control  Them. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

PLANT  DISEASES 

When  is  a  plant  said  to  be  diseased?  If  a  plant  which 
varies  from  the  ideal  is  regarded  as  diseased,  then  nearly 
every  plant  is  diseased;  for  the  factors  which  determine 
growth  are  usually  not  ideal.  Disease,  however,  is  usually 
made  to  embrace  any  striking  variation  such  that  the  life  of 
an  organ  or  sometimes  the  life  of  the  plant  as  a  whole  is 
threatened.  All  gradations  exist  between  that  which  is 
called  disease  and  that  which  is  regarded  as  health. 

CLASSIFICATION 
I.     Germ  diseases  caused  by:  II.     Non-germ  diseases  caused  by: 

(1)  Slime  molds  (1)  Lack  of  water 

(2)  Bacteria  (2)  Excessive  water 

(3)  Fungi  (3)  AlkaU 

(4)  Flowering  plants  (4)  Smelter  smoke 

How  plants  are  injuriously  affected  by  lack  of  water,  too 
much  water,  alkaH,  etc.,  is  given  where  the  study  of  crop 
production  in  relation  to  water  and  soils  is  considered. 

Germ  diseases  are  those  in  which  a  living  plant  (the  causal 
organism)  lives  upon  another  living  plant,  the  host,  and  brings 
about  those  abnormal  conditions  which  result  in  a  marked 
decrease  of  vitality  and  in  premature  death.  The  causal 
organisms  have  accustomed  themselves  to  obtain  their  car- 
bohydrates from  other  living  organisms  and  are  hence  called 
parasites  in  opposition  to  those  organisms  called  saprophytes 
which  obtain  their  carbohydrates  from  dead  organic  matter. 

SLIME  MOLD  DISEASES 

The  diseases  caused  by  slime  molds  are  generally  of  little 
significance  in  the  arid  West.  Occasionally,  however,  where 
cabbages  are  grown,  one  of  these  diseases  known  as  the  club- 
root  of  cabbage  and  other  crucifers  arises. 

270 


PLANT  DISEASES 


271 


Clubfoot  of  Cabbage.  Hosts.  Some  of  the  plants  which 
become  diseased  by  the  sHme  mold  organism  are  cabbages, 
cauliflowers,  Brussels  sprouts,  turnips,  rutabagas,  radishes  and 
•  certain  mustards. 

There  seems  to  be 
little  information 
as  to  the  relative 
susceptibility  of 
different  varieties 
of  crucifers  to  this 
disease. 

Symptoms. 
Seedling  plants 
sbow  a  decided 
wilting  or  flagging. 
They  are  stunted 
and  have  an  un- 
healthy appear- 
ance. Most  seed- 
lings attacked  die. 
When  older  plants 
are  attacked,  the 
first  indication  of 
disease  is  a  decid- 
ed wilting  during 
the  heat  of  the 
day  which  is  overcome  during  the  night  when  transpiration  is 
less  rapid.  This  condition  is  brought  about  by  the  organ- 
ism which  has  invaded  the  root  tissue  and  caused  excessive 
and  abnormal  growth  in  the  phloem  and  cortex  regions  at 
the  expense  of  the  xylem  region,  which  is  the  water  conduct- 
ing tissue  of  the  plant.  The  clubbing  of  the  roots  is  very 
characteristic.  The  roots  are  greatly  enlarged  at  the  base 
while  toward  the  tip  they  appear  normal.  Curious  malfor- 
mations are  likely  to  occur. 


Figure  104. —  Clubroot  on  cabbage.  _   Losses  from  this 
disease  have  often  been  disastrous. 


272 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Control,  The  disease  cannot  be  cured;  so,  the  only  course 
of  action  must  be  prevention.  The  following  rules  are 
applicable : 

1.  Avoid  all  those  conditions  which  favor  disease,  such 
as  lack  of  clean  cultivation,  manuring  before  planting,  and 
poorly  drained  lands. 

2.  Where  cabbage  is  fed  to  animals  it  should  be  cooked 
beforehand  to  destroy  the  organism  or  otherwise  the  spores 
will  pass  through  the  ahmentary  tract  uninjured. 

3.  Deep  plowing  should  constantly  be  the  rule. 

4.  Since  the  organism  preys  upon  various  crucifers, 
rotate  crops.  In  the  rotation,  crops  not  of  the  cruciferous 
kind  should  be  used. 

5.  Clean  soil  should  always  be  in  the  seed  bed.  To 
obtain  this  always  sterilize  with  steam  or  with  formalin. 

6.  When  soils  are  acid,  liming  should  be  practiced.  Use 
75  bushels  of  air-slacked  stone  lime  per  acre. 

BACTERIAL  DISEASES 

The  two  most  disastrous  bac- 
terial diseases  are  all  that  can  be 
studied  in  this  short  chapter, 
although  more  than  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  are  known. 

Pear  Blight.  Hosts.  The 
plants  usually  attacked  are  pear, 
apple,  and  quince.  The  germ  also 
attacks  hawthorns  and  plums. 
Of  the  pear,  such  varieties  as 
Bartlett,  Flemish  Beauty,  Seckel, 
and  LeConte  are  more  suscept- 
ible than  are  such  as  the  Kieffer, 
Duchess,  and  Winter  Nelis.  The 
disease,  while  usually  not  as  dis- 
astrous on  apples  as  on  pears, 
often  becomes  quite  serious. 


Figure  105. — Fire  blight  on  pear 
tree. 


PLANT  DISEASES 


273 


Figure  106. — Fire  blight 
on  an  apple  tree. 


Symptoms.  Body  blight,  or  canker, 
shows  itself  as  diseased  areas  in  the  bark 
of  the  body  or  the  large  limbs.  When 
the  disease  is  active,  these  cankers  are 
of  a  dark  water-soaked  appearance  and 
the  advancing  margin  is  indefinite,  or 
raised  and  blistered,  with  or  without 
ooze  of  reddish  brown  drops  issuing  from 
the  lenticels.  When  the  canker  is  no 
longer  active,  it  has  a  definite  margin. 
It  is  then  separated  from  the  healthy 
tissue  by  a  crack.  These  cankers  form 
about  the  base  of  a  blighted  shoot  or 
spur.  They  are  the  means  by  which 
the  disease  is  carried  over  winter.  Blos- 
som blight  is  evidenced  by  sudden  wilt- 
ing and  blackening  of  the  young  fruit  shortly  after  the  petals 
fall.  Then  follows  wilting  and  blackening  of  the  young 
leaves  of  the  spur.  This  form 
of  blight  is  disseminated  by 
insects  or  other  small  animals 
which  visit  the  ooze  contain- 
ing the  blight  organism  which 
is  found  on  the  edge  of  the 
active  cankers  and  carried  to 
the  blossom.  Twig  blight 
shows  as  a  sudden  wilting  and 
blackening  of  the  young  twig 
from  the  tip  downward.  Fruit 
blight  shows  as  a  water-soaked 
area  on  the  green  fruit  which 
blackens.  From  the  lenticels 
of  the  fruit  milky  drops  con- 
taining the  bacteria  ooze  out. 

Figure  107. — Twig  blight  on  apple. 


274 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  108.— Crown  gall  on 
beet.  It  is  found  on  fruit- 
bearing,  flowering,  and  veg- 
etable plants. 


Control.  The  remedy  for  this 
disease  Ues  in  cutting  out  infected 
areas.  The  disease  may  generally 
be  controlled.  If  all  growers  knew 
the  various  stages  of  the  disease  and 
were  very  vigilant  in  attempting  to 
free  the  orchard  from  it,  the  disease 
could  practically  be  eradicated.  All 
withered  growth  that  shows  evi- 
dence of  the  blight  should  be  pruned 
out  before  blossoming  time. 

Summer  pruning  is  also  prajcticed. 
Wherever  blight  is  cut  out  the  ex- 
cised material  should  be  carried 
from  the  orchard  and  burned.  All 
wounded  areas  made  during  the  winter  or  summer  should 
be  well  washed  with  a  solution  of  1  part  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate to  1,000  parts  of  water.  If  care  in  pruning  is  not 
exercised  and  the  wound  is  not  sterilized,  the  disease  may  be 
spread  rather  than  controlled  when  pruning  is  attempted. 
Crown  Gall.  Hosts.  Grapes,  raspberries,  peaches,  apples, 
pears,  pecans,  and  many  other  plants,  both  cultivated  and 

wild,  are  at- 
tacked by  crown 
gall.  The  organ- 
ism may  live  in 
the  soil  and  be 
carried  by  irri- 
gation water. 
Nursery  stock  is 
a  very  common 
means  of  dissem- 
ination.  Older 
trees  are  less 

Figure  109.— Crown  gall  on  peach  tree.  likely  affcCted. 


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PLANT  DISEASES  275 

Symptoms,  It  is  chiefly  characterized  by  galls  or  swell- 
ings on  the  crowns  or  roots.  The  galls  may  be  smooth  or 
rough — usually  rough — and  hard  or  soft.  At  times  the  roots 
throw  out  tufts  of  smaller  roots,  whence  the  name  "hairy- 
root."  The  galls  vary  in  size  from  small  on  small  roots  to 
large  on  large  ones. 

Control.  Avoid  planting  any  nursery  stock  which  shows 
any  signs  of  disease.  Healthy  trees  should  not  be  planted  in 
soil  already  infected.  Trees  planted  should  be  healed  over  as 
much  as  possible  and  in  cultivation  care  should  be  taken  that 
few  wounds  on  the  underground  parts  of  the  tree  are  pro- 
duced. It  is  difficult  to  remove  successfully  the  diseased 
portions.  Control  is,  therefore,  rather  a  matter  of  preven- 
tion than  of  cure. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

Fungous  diseases  are  more  numerous  by  far  than  bacte- 
rial diseases.  Only  a  few  of  the  principal  types,  however, 
can  receive  consideration. 


Figure  110. — Gooseberry  leaves  affected  with  mildew. 

Gooseberry  Mildew.  Symptoms.  This  disease  is  charac- 
terized by  the  white  or  gray  patches  of  mildew  upon  leaves, 
stems,  and  fruit  of  the  gooseberry.  Occasionally  it  is  found 
attacking  the  currant  bushes. 


276  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Control.  The  best  results  so  far  obtained  have  been  by 
the  use  of  a  solution  of  potassium  sulphide,  1  ounce  to  2  gal- 
lons of  water.  Spraying  should  begin  at  the  time  the  buds 
burst  in  the  spring  and  be  repeated  every  10  days,  if  the 
fungus  is  present  in  considerable  quantities. 

In  general  the  mildews  are  very  similar  in  appearance 
and  readily  identified.     The  treatment  usually  consists  in 

the  use  of  some  sulphur 
or  sulphide  spray  which  is 
applied  throughout  the 
season  every  two  weeks,  if 
conditions  require.  Some 
of  the  most  destructive 
mildews  are  those  of  the 
peach,  the  apple,  and  the 
grape. 

Potato   Scab.      Symp- 

Figure  111.— Common  potato  scab.  toms.      Scab  first  shoWS  by 

a  minute  reddish  or  brown- 
ish spot  on  the  surface  of  the  potato  tuber,  generally  when 
it  is  very  young,  though  sometimes  not  so  early.  After  it 
has  once  appeared  it  may  extend  quite  rapidly  to  the 
surrounding  tissue,  becoming  deeper  in  color  and  being  asso- 
ciated with  an  abnormal  corky  development  which  often 
covers  a  considerable  area.  This  area  may  constitute  a 
more  or  less  irregular  scab-like  crust  over  the  surface,  or 
more  frequently  may  become  deeply  cracked,  depending 
upon  the  stage  at  which  the  tubers  first  become  diseased. 
Those  which  are  attacked  while  very  young  show,  as  might 
be  expected,  by  far  the  most  deeply  seated  injury. 

Control.  The  methods  of  control  are  of  two  natures, 
treatment  of  the  seed  and  of  the  soil.  In  general  the  only 
soil  treatment  resorted  to  is  liming  the  soil  where  it  is  some- 
what acid  (an  acid  soil  favors  the  growth  of  the  organism), 
and  to  practice  a  judicious  rotation  of  crops. 


PLA^'T  DISEASES  277 

When  the  grower  has  a  large  quantity  of  seed  to  treat 
he  may  store  it  in  crates  in  a  tight  cellar  or  compartment 
in  such  a  way  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  between  the 
crates.  To  every  1,000  feet  of  air  space  23  ounces  of  potas- 
sium permanganate  and  3  pints  of  formalin  should  be  used. 
The  potassium  permanganate  is  placed  in  a  large  receptacle, 
as  a  tub,  and  the  formalin  poured  quickly  over  it.  Rapidly 
tilt  the  tub  first  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other,  so  that  the 
formalin  covers  the  potassium  permanganate.  Then  leave 
the  room  instantly  and  close  the  door.  Formaldehyde  is 
generated,  which  circulates  throughout  the  compartment, 
disinfecting  and  killing  the  germ  in  the  scab  spot.  Allow 
the  potatoes  to  stand  over  night  or  for  the  period  of  about 
12  hours.  Then  open  the  door  and  allow  the  formaldehyde 
to  escape. 

For  small  quantities  of  potatoes  use  1  pint  of  formalin 
to  30  gallons  of  water  and  immerse  the  potatoes  in  this  so- 
lution for  from  1 3^  to  2}^  hours.  Remove  after  this  period 
and  dry.  In  place  of  formalin,  bichloride  of  mercury  (cor- 
rosive sublimate),  1  pound  to  125  gallons  of  water,  can  be 
used.  This  solution  should  be  made  up  in  a  wooden  barrel. 
It  is  very  poisonous  to  man  and  all  other  animals. 

Finally,  plant  clean  seed  in  soil  as  free  from  the  disease- 
producing  germ  as  possible.  To  obtain  the  seed  use  a  small 
seed  plat. 

The  potato  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  diseased  of 
crops.  No  less  than  ten  very  serious  diseases  have  been 
studied.  Their  close  similarity  of  symptoms  in  so  many 
instances  makes  it  impossible  to  study  them  to  advantage 
without  microscope  and  laboratory  facilities. 

Covered,  or  Stinking,  Smut  of  Wheat.  This  disease  is 
caused  by  two  separate  species  of  fungi  which  are  so  nearly 
alike  in  their  appearance  and  whose  effects  upon  wheat  are 
so  similar  that,  when  speaking  of  stinking  smut,  both  fungi 
are  regarded  as  one. 


278 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Symptoms.  The  affected  heads  are  of  somewhat  darker 
green  color  than  normal,  or  healthy,  heads  and  the  individual 
spikelets  are  somewhat  smaller  and  a  little  farther  apart. 

Always  associated  with  the  disease  is  a  disagreeable  odor 
which  gives  the  disease  the  name  ''stinking"  smut.     The 


Figure  112. — Stinking  smut  on  wheat. 

place  usually  occupied  by  the  kernel  is  now  occupied  by  the 
smut  spores.  These  remain  enclosed  by  the  ovary  walls 
and  glumes;  hence  the  name  "covered"  smut. 

Control.  Control  is  secured  by  treating  the  grain  with 
a  fungicide.  The  principal  fungicides  so  far  in  use  have 
been  formahn  and  blue  vitriol. 

In  the  formalin  treatment,  the  seed  may  be  put  in  sacks 
containing  one  half  to  one  bushel  each,  and  then  be  immersed 
from  10  to  30  minutes  in  a  solution  containing  1  pint  of  for- 
mahn to  50  gallons  of  water.  At  the  end  of  the  allotted  time 
drain  the  sacks  over  the  barrel  for  a  short  time  and  put  away 
the  wet  sacks  or  heap  the  grain  and  cover  it.  Let  the  grain 
stand  in  the  wet  sacks  or  lie  in  the  heap  for  two  hours,  then 


PLANT  DISEASES  279 

spread  out  and  dry.  Shoveling  over  the  grain  will  facilitate 
the  drying. 

When  using  the  blue  vitriol,  use  1  pound  to  4  gallons  of 
water  and  immerse  the  wheat  for  5  minutes.  Then  remove 
and  dry.  Somewhat  more  seed  should  be  used  than  when 
sowing  untreated  wheat,  as  the  germinating  power  of  the 
grain  is  reduced  about  15  per  cent. 

It  does  not  follow  that  treating  grain  will  produce  a  crop 
absolutely  clean.  The  smut  spores  may  probably  live  in 
the  soil  at  least  one  season  and  affect  in  many  instances  seed 
that  has  already  been  treated;  thus  the  crop  may  be  some- 
what smutted. 

After  seed  is  treated,  use  clean  sacks  and  a  clean  drill. 

DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  FLOWERING  PLANTS 

There  are  a  great  many  diseases  caused  by  flowering 
plants.  Two  of  the  most  common  diseases  of  this  group  in 
the  West  are  those  caused  by  the  mistletoes  on  the  conifers 
and  junipers,  and  the  dodder  on  the  alfalfa  and  clover. 
The  mistletoes  are  of  considerable  interest  to  the  forester, 
while  the  dodder  attracts  the  attention  of  the  farmer. 

Dodder.  Hosts,  Symptoms,  etc.  The  dodder  attacks 
clover,  alfalfa  and  many  other  plants.  It  grows  from  the 
seed  as  a  long,  slender,  yellow  filament  which  sways  in  the 
air  until  by  chance  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  host  plant. 
Thereupon  it  twines  itself  about  the  host,  sending  haustoria 
into  the  bundles  where  water,  salts  and  organic  food  are 
obtained  for  its  growth.  After  attachment  has  finally  occurred 
the  dodder  no  longer  has  use  for  its  roots  which,  in  turn,  die 
and  the  plant  is  then  entirely  dependent  on  the  host.  After 
seeds  have  been  produced  the  dodder  dies.  The  seeds  lie 
on  the  ground  until  the  following  spring  when  the  same  story 
is  repeated.  Providing  the  dodder  filament  produced  from 
the  seed  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  host,  it  perishes, 
as  it  is  unable  to  sustain  itself  upon  food  material  derived 


280  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

directly  from  the  soil.  Alfalfa  and  clover  plants  become 
exceedingly  dwarfed  under  severe  cases  of  the  disease  and 
mostly  become  valueless  as  a  fodder  crop. 

Control.  The  seed  of  the  parasite  resembles  the  alfalfa 
or  clover  seed  and  is,  therefore,  easily  disseminated  with  it. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  purchase  clean  seed.  Diseased 
areas  in  the  field  may  be  burned  when  covered  with  straw 
upon  which  kerosene  should  be  sprinkled.  Rotation  of  crops 
yields  very  satisfactory  results. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  is  a  plant  diseased? 

2.  State  the  causes  of  plant  disease. 

3.  Name  several  of  the  most  common  plant  diseases. 

4.  Describe  pear  blight.     Give  method  of  control. 

5.  Do  the  same  for  crown  gall,  gooseberry  mildew,  and  wheat  smut. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Crown  Gall:    Collect  samples  of  plants  attacked  by  the  crown  gall 

organism.  Note  the  general  appearance  of  the  gall.  Note  the 
cracks  and  ridges.  Is  the  gall  hard  or  soft?  Sometimes  second- 
ary galls  appear  farther  up  on  the  tree.  Do  any  of  the  samples 
of  the  crown  gall  show  any  deformity  of  the  root  system? 
What  is  the  cause  of  "hairy  root?"     Draw. 

2.  Pear  Blight:    If  conditions  are  favorable,  this  should  be  a  spring 

field  trip.  Visit  some  pear  or  apple  orchard  where  the  blight 
is  to  be  found.  Look  on  the  trunks  or  branches  of  the  trees 
for  sunken  areas,  the  "hold-over"  cankers.  What  is  their 
function?  See  if  you  can  find  honey-like  drops  oozing  out. 
What  are  these  drops?  The  blight  also  attacks  the  blossoms, 
young  twigs,  and  young  fruit.  How  can  insects  help  to  carry 
the  disease  to  the  blossoms  of  young  twigs?  How  can  you  tell 
how  far  the  blight  has  advanced  on  a  young  twig?  Do  the 
trees  show  any  signs  of  the  fruit's  being  blighted?     Draw. 

3.  Covered,  or  Stinking,  Smut  of  Wheat:    Examine  a  head  of  wheat 

affected  with  stinking  smut.  Compare  a  diseased  head  with  a 
normal  head.  Note  differences  in  color,  shape,  kernel,  etc. 
Make  drawings  showing  these  differences.  Mount  some  spores 
in  a  drop  of  water  and  examine  under  the  microscope.  Note 
color,  size,  etc.     Draw. 


PLANT  DISEASES  281 

4.  Poivdery  Mildews:     Study  any  available  powdery  mildew  such 

as  that  on  grasses,  doorweed,  willow,  gooseberry,  etc.  Examine 
the  affected  plant  both  in  the  field  and  in  laboratory.  What 
part  is  affected?     What  injury  occurs  to  the  host? 

5.  Potato  Scab:     Secure  specimens  of  potatoes  diseased  with  scab. 

The  disease  may  show  as  a  scab-like  crust  over  the  surface,  or 
it  may  become  deeply  cracked  and  furrowed.  Study  until  you 
become  so  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  disease  that  you  can 
detect  it. 

6.  Dodder:     Secure  samples  of  dodder  or  take  a  field  trip  to  some 

place  where  it  can  be  observed  growing.  Note  the  general 
appearance  of  the  attacked  plants  as  compared  with  the  healthy 
plants.  Note  the  way  in  which  this  parasite  attacks  the  host. 
Write  the  life  history  of  dodder. 

REFERENCES 

Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,  Duggar. 
Diseases  of  Economic  Plants,  Stevens  and  Hall. 
Any  good  text  of  botany. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.    75.     The  Grain  Smuts. 

507.     The  Smuts  of  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley  and  Corn. 
Minn.  Bulletin  133.     Spore  Germination  of  Cereal  Smuts,  Stak- 

man. 
Minn.  Bulletin  160.     Rye  Smut,  Stakman  and  Levine. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bull.  360.     Mistletoe  Injury  to  Conifers  in  the 

Northwest,  Weir. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
CONTROL  OF  INSECT  PESTS 

An  insect  is  an  invertebrate  animal  possessing  three  main 
divisions  of  the  body:  A  head  which  contains  the  mouth 
parts,  eyes,  and  antennae,  or  feelers;  a  thorax,  to  which  are 
attached  three  pairs  of  legs  and  usually  one  or  two  pairs  of 
wings  (some  insects  never  have  wings) ;  and  an  abdomen,  the 
posterior  end  of  which  contains  the  reproductive  organs. 
Insects  breathe  by  means  of  trachea,  which  are  finely  divided 
tubes  passing  all  through  the  body  and  reaching  the  outside 
by  small  openings  on  the  abdomen  and  on  the  thorax.  The 
blood  circulates  freely  through  the  body,  supplying  the  insect 
with  the  oxygen  necessary  to  continue  its  life. 

Feeding  Habits.  Insects  have  two  types  of  mouth  parts 
— biting  and  sucking.  Of  the  biting  insects,  grasshoppers, 
beetles,  and  caterpillars  are  best  known.  Among  those 
insects  which  secure  their  food  by  sucking  are  the  true  bugs, 
the  leaf  hoppers,  and  the  butterflies  and  moths. 

Not  all  insects  are  injurious:  many  should  be  protected. 
We  usually  do  protect  the  honey  bee  and  the  silk  worm. 
There  are  other  insects  that  pass  their  lives  preying  upon 
their  fellow  creatures,  and  still  others  that  lay  their  eggs  inside 
of  other  insects,  their  young  feeding  inside  of  the  host  and 
eventually  killing  it.  It  is  well,  in  studying  insects  that  are 
supposed  to  be  injuring  crops,  to  take  into  consideration  these 
facts;  to  examine  the  insect  and  find  whether  it  is  really  doing 
damage,  and,  if  it  is,  whether  that  damage  is  done  by  suck- 
ing the  sap  or  juices  of  the  plant  or  whether  it  is  caused  by 
the  insect's  actually  chewing  up  the  leaves  for  food. 

In  no  countiy  has  the  loss  by  insects  been  heavier  than 
in  the  United  States.     It  has  been  conservatively  estimated 

282 


CONTROL  OF  INSECT  PESTS  283 

that  the  present  loss  reaches  one  bilHon  dollars  annually. 
Cultural  methods  and  the  proper  use  of  spraying  and  other 
insecticides  will  save  to  every  man  a  large  part  of  this  loss. 

Codling  Moth.  As  a  typical  example  of  an  insect  that 
feeds  by  chewing  its  food,  and  that  is  controlled  by  feeding 
it  a  poison,  we  may  take  the  larvae,  or  young,  of  the  codling 
moth,  the  apple  worm.  This  insect  causes  more  damage  than 
all  other  apple  insects  in  the  intermountain  region.  The 
worms  pass  the  winter  in  tough  cocoons,  hidden  in  the  rough 
bark  on  the  trunk  or  larger  limbs,  under  rubbish  in  the 
orchard,  or  in  fruit  cellars.  In  the  spring  they  change  into 
the  pupa,  or  resting,  stage  and  later  are  transformed  into 
moths.  These  moths,  which  are  nearly  the  color  of  the  apple 
bark,  come  out  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  after  the  blossoms 
fall  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  apple  leaves  or  on  the  apples, 
where  the  fuzz  has  been  rubbed  off,  or  where  two  apples  are 
touching.  The  great  majority  of  these  worms,  when  they 
hatch,  go  in  at  the  calyx,  or  blossom  end  of  the  apple.  At 
this  point  there  are  very  few  hairs  and  the  worm  can  obtain 
an  easy  entrance.  They  remain  in  the  apple  from  twenty 
to  thirty  days,  bore  their  way  to  the  outside,  crawl  down  the 
tree,  hide  away,  spin  their  cocoons,  and  pass  into  the  resting, 
or  pupa,  stage.  In  ten  to  fourteen  days,  a  second  brood  of 
moths  appears.  The  eggs  of  this  second  brood  are  usually  laid 
on  the  apples,  the  larvae,  when  hatching,  eating  in  at  the 
side  or  any  other  point  on  the  apple.  When  these  worms  are 
full  grown,  they  leave  the  apples,  go  down  the  tree,  and  spin 
the  tough  cocoons  in  which  they  live  over  winter.  Many  of 
the  worms  are  not  full  grown  at  the  time  of  apple  picking 
and  so  are  carried  into  the  fruit  cellars  or  crawl  out  of  the 
apples  while  they  are  lying  on  the  ground. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  above  that  the  first  brood  of 
worms  usually  goes  in  at  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple  and  that 
they  are  not  present  on  the  trees  until  after  the  apples  have 
formed.     At  this  time  the  blossom  end  of  the  apple  is  so  well 


284  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

closed  up  by  the  little  leaves  which  surround  it,  that  any 
spraying  for  the  codling  moth  must  be  done  before  the  worms 
are  present  in  the  orchard. 

Spraying.  The  accepted  time  for  spraying  is  immediately 
after  the  blossoms  fall  from  the  trees.  In  looking  at  an 
apple  tree,  we  find  that  the  blossoms  on  the  tree  always  point 
towards  the  light.  Thus  blossoms  are  pointing  outward  in 
every  direction.  In  order  to  get  poisonous  compounds  into 
this  blossom  end,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  considerable 
pressure  and  drive  the  spray  into  the  partly  closed  cup.  The 
spray  to  use  is  lead  arsenate,  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water.  Use  a  Bordeaux  nozzle,  driving  the 
spray  directly  into  the  center  of  the  blossom  end.  Pay  no 
attention  to  the  leaves  on  the  tree.  Look  only  for  the  blos- 
som ends  and  put  the  spray  there.  One  hundred  pounds 
pressure  or  more  is  necessary  to  do  the  work.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  tower  or  ladder  on  a  wagon  so  that  one 
can  get  above  the  blossoms  that  are  pointing  upward.  A 
bamboo  rod,  attached  to  twenty-five  feet  of  good  seven-ply 
hose  having  at  the  nozzle  end  of  the  rod  a  45-degree  angle 
to  which  the  nozzle  is  attached  will  aid  in  doing  this  work 
properly.  Do  thorough  work.  Do  not  miss  a  blossom.  The 
nozzle  should  be  kept  moving  up  and  down  the  branch  all 
the  time.  It  is  ordinarily  a  wise  precaution  to  repeat  this 
spraying  ten  to  fourteen  days  later  in  order  to  poison  the 
cups  of  the  apples  that  were  not  ready  at  the  time  of  first 
spraying.  If  the  orchard  is  badly  infested  or  close  to  badly 
infested  orchards,  it  may  be  necessary  to  spray  for  the  second 
brood  about  the  first  week  in  July  with  a  mist  spray,  en- 
deavoring to  cover  the  apples  with  the  spray.  In  any  case 
put  burlap  bands  around  the  trees  about  a  month  after  blos- 
soming and  remove  these  bands  eveiy  ten  days,  killing  the 
worms  that  appear  under  thorn,  until  al)out  the  20th  of  August. 
Then  the  bands  need  not  be  removed  until  after  the  apples  are 
picked,  when  they  should  be  taken  off,  the  worms  under  them 


CONTROL  OF  INSECT  PESTS  285 

killed,  and  the  bands  put  away  for  the  next  year.  The  bands 
should  be  made  of  pieces  of  burlap  which  are  one  foot  wide, 
folded  down  four  inches  from  the  top,  and  put  around  the  tree 
with  the  long  flap  on  the  outside  and  fastened  with  a  tack. 

Among  other  insects  which  may  be  handled  by  arsenate 
of  lead  spraying  are  the  pear  and  cherry  slugs,  the  tent  cater- 
pillar, the  fall  webworm,  and  the  sugar-beet  caterpillar.  The 
leaves  of  trees  or  plants  affected  with  these  insects  should  be 
covered  with  a  mist  spray. 

Scale  Insects.  The  sucking  type  of  insect  requires  an 
entirely  different  method  of  treatment.  With  scale  insects, 
which  belong  to  the  sucking  class,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
spray  in  the  winter  time,  using  what  is  known  as  the  lime- 
sulphur  wash.  These  insects  at  this  time  are  on  the  trees, 
covered  with  the  cast-off  skins  and  a  waxy  secretion,  which 
make  what  is  called  the  scale.  In  early  spring,  in  the  case 
of  the  San  Jose  scale,  which  works  on  all  our  fruit  trees,  the 
young  are  born  alive,  and  in  about  twenty-four  hours  com- 
mence feeding,  the  females  probably  never  leaving  the  spot 
when  they  begin  feeding.  There  are  several  generations 
during  the  summer.  The  scale  protects  this  insect  so  effec- 
tively that  it  is  very  hard  to  put  on  the  tree  while  it  is  grow- 
ing anything  that  will  be  strong  enough  to  penetrate  the  scale 
and  still  not  injure  the  leaves  and  fruit;  hence  we  are  prac- 
tically restricted  to  winter  work. 

Sprayiny.  The  lime-sulphur  wash  may  be  a  homemade 
preparation.  Use  15  pounds  of  sulphur  and  20  pounds 
of  lime,  to  50  gallons  of  boiling  water.  This  is  best  pre- 
pared by  having  about  5  gallons  of  boiling  water,  adding 
the  lime  in  small  lumps  and  following  this  immediately  with 
the  sulphur.  It  will  be  found  necessary  to  stir  this  mixture 
rapidly  for  some  time  to  keep  it  from  boiling  over.  It  is 
sufficiently  cooked  when  it  stops  changing  color  and  may 
then  be  diluted  down  to  the  necessary  50  gallons.  In  using 
the  prepared  or  manufactured  lime-sulphurs,  in  the  case  of 


286  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

those  that  contain  water,  they  should  be  so  diluted  that 
they  are  no  weaker  than  one  to  six.  The  powdered  lime- 
sulphurs  which  are  now  on  the  market  will  certainly  be 
cheaper  so  far  as  the  transportation  of  the  materials  is  con- 
cerned, and  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  15  pounds  to 
50  gallons  of  water.  It  is  always  best  to  use  a  hydrometer  to 
test  the  strength  of  lime-sulphur  compounds.  In  using  lime- 
sulphur  care  should  be  taken  to  cover  every  part  of  the  tree 
which  is  being  sprayed.  If  necessary,  go  over  it  two  or  three 
times  so  that  all  of  the  tips  of  the  twigs  and  the  crevices  in 
the  bark  are  thoroughly  covered.  This  mixture  will  aid  not 
only  in  controlling  scale  insects,  but  will  also  kill  the  eggs  of 
the  aphids  or  plant  lice,  and  those  of  the  brown  mite,  or  red 
spider,  which  are  laid  on  the  apple  and  other  fruit  trees. 

If  by  any  chance  lime-sulphur  spray  has  not  been  given 
to  trees  that  are  heavily  infested  with  the  eggs  of  plant  lice, 
when  these  insects  hatch  they  must  be  controlled  as  early 
as  possible.  When  leaves  are  just  well  opened,  good  results 
will  be  obtained  by  spraying  with  a  tobacco  mixture  using 
one  of  the  sheep  dips  of  the  strengths  recommended  in  the 
printed  directions,  and  driving  the  spray  up  from  beneath 
so  that  it  will  strike  the  under  side  of  all  the  leaves  where 
the  plant  lice  are  feeding. 

Arsenic  Bran-mash.  There  is  one  other  insecticide  that 
is  in  general  use,  a  mash  for  poisoning  insects  such  as  grass- 
hoppers in  fields  and  orchards,  and  cutworms  in  gardens. 

The  arsenic  bran-mash  consists  of  a  preparation  of  1 
pound  of  white  arsenic,  4  to  6  pounds  of  sugar,  and  12  to  20 
pounds  of  ])ran  and  3  oranges  or  lemons.  Mix  these  dry, 
then  dampen  sufficient ly  to  cause  the  sugar  to  stick  to  the 
bran  and  to  hold  the  arsenic.  Grind  or  cut  up  the  fruit  and 
mix  thoroughly  into  the  mash.  This  may  then  be  sown 
broadcast  along  edges  of  fields  where  grasshoppers  are  coming 
in,  or  scattered  in  small  piles  around  trees  or  in  gardens 


CONTROL  OF  INSECT  PESTS  287 

around  plants  that  may  l^c  injured  I )yx'utwornis  or  grasshop- 
pers.    Keep  chickens  away.     This  mixture  is  poisonous. 

Cultural  Methods.  Among  the  general  means  of  cont  rol 
of  insects,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  tluit  the  most  important 
is  clean  culture — the  destruction  of  all  the  weeds,  rubbish, 
and  other  trash  in  and  around  fields,  houses,  barns,  and  other 
buildings.  Crop  rotation  is  also  necessary;  especially  is  this 
true  in  the  case  of  the  alfalfa  weevil,  an  insect  which  lives 
entirely  by  feeding  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plants  in  the 
alfalfa  group.  Alfalfa  should  not  be  grown  on  the  same 
soil  more  than  four  or  five  years  at  a  time.  If  the  fields  are 
infested  with  the  alfalfa  weevil,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly 
cultivated  in  the  spring  or  fall,  using  a  disk  or  spring-tooth 
harrow.  This  cultivation  will  also  aid  in  getting  rid  of  grass- 
hopper eggs.  As  soon  as  the  first  crop  is  removed,  the  land 
should  be  gone  over  with  a  spring-tooth  harrow  and  followed 
with  a  heavy  brush  or  wire  drag.  By  this  means  many  of  the 
larvae  or  young  of  the  weevil  will  be  crushed  or  otherwise  in- 
jured. The  most  of  the  leaves  and  buds  will  be  pulled  from 
the  stubble  and  the  alfalfa-weevil  worms  which  are  remaining 
in  the  field  will  have  nothing  upon  which  to  feed.  One  day 
of  hot  sunshine  will  then  kill  a  large  percentage  of  them. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  an  insect?     Distinguish  between  insects,   red  spiders, 

nematodes,  and  sow  bugs. 

2.  How  would  you  distinguish  between  injuries  caused  by  biting 

insects  and  sucking  insects? 

3.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  put  the  first  codhng  moth  spray  into  the 

calyx  cup? 

4.  Why  may  the  calyx  cup  be  neglected  with  the  second  spray? 

5.  Why  are  cultural  methods  of  control,  where  possible,  preferable 

to  other  methods? 

6.  How  would  you  protect  parasitic  or  predaceous  insects  from 

destruction? 

7.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  study  carefully  the  life  history  of  an  insect 

before  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  the  best  method  of  control? 


288  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

8.  Of  what  value  are  birds  to  the  general  farmer? 

9.  Why  should  the  English  sparrow  be  destroyed? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Schools  should  use  insects  in  the  particular  region  wher6  they 

live  for  illustration.  Plants  can  be  kept  in  the  schoolroom  and 
insects,  such  as  aphids  will  readily  multiply  upon  them.  Cater- 
pillars and  other  biting  insects  may  be  kept  in  small  boxes  and 
fed  daily  with  their  proper  food.  Study  insects  in  the  field  in 
order  to  gain  knowledge  of  their  habits. 

2.  Visit  an  apiary  and  study  the  honeybee  at  work. 

3.  If  in  a  farming  neighborhood  visit  some  up-to-date  farmers  and 

see  them  in  their  work  of  controlling  such  insects  as  codling 
moth,  San  Jose  scale,  or  alfalfa  weevil. 

REFERENCES 
Insects  and  Disease,  Doane. 
The  Butterfly  Book,  Holland. 
The  Moth  Book,  Holland. 
The  House  Fly  Disease,  Howard. 
The  Insect  Book,  Howard. 
Insects  Pests,  Sanderson. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops,  Sanderson. 
Elementary  Entomology,  Sanderson  and  Jackson. 
Fruit  Insects,  Slingerland  and  Herrick. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,  Saunders. 
Our  Insect  Friends  and  Enemies,  Smith 
Bureau  of  Entomology  Bulletins  up  to  1914. 
U.  S.  D.  A.  Bulletin  (New  series). 

Farmers'  Bulletins:    Write  U.  S.  Government  Printing  Office  for 
List. 
No.  127.     Important  Insecticides. 

691.     Grasshoppers  and  Their  Control  on  Sugar  Beet  and 
Truck  Farms. 

725.     Wireworms. 

741.     Alfalfa  Weevil. 

747.     Grasshoppers  and  Their  Control  in  Relation  to  Cereal 
and  Forage  Crops. 

799.    Carbon  Disulphid  as  an  Insecticide. 

851.     The  House  Fly. 

909.    Cattle  Lice  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them. 

940.    Common  White  Grubs. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
BEEF  CATTLE 

Domestic  cattle  originated  from  two  wild  types,  one  from 
which  European  and  American  cattle  are  derived,  and  the 
other  the  humped  cattle  of  India.  In  early  European  his- 
tory two  types  were  known,  one  a  large  type  sometimes  called 
the  great  wild  ox,  from  which  evolved  the  larger  breeds  of 
cattle;  the  other  type,  smaller  and  more  deer-like,  from 
which  came  the  smaller  breeds  of  cattle. 

Meat  Production.  Meat  forms  a  large  part  of  the  food 
of  the  white  races,  and,  therefore,  meat-producing  animals 
occupy  a  very  important  part  of  the  agricultural  interest  of 
the  world.  There  are  on  earth  nearly  three  hundred  mil- 
lion cattle  that  may  be  classed  as  meat-producing;  hence 
the  United  States,  owning  more  than  forty  million,  produces 
more  than  one  eighth  of  the  world's  beef.  Meat  is  not,  as 
formerly,  all  consumed  near  the  place  where  it  is  produced; 
but,  as  a  result  of  modern  methods  of  transportation,  is 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Beef  Type.  In  general  a  beef  animal  should  show  the 
meat-producing  form,  which  is  found  in  a  low-set,  blocky, 
deep,  thick  animal,  having  a  large  percentage  of  edible  meat. 
The  ideal  beef  animal  has  straight  back  (topline)  and  straight 
underline,  and  he  stands  on  short  legs.  Cutting  off  head 
and  legs  leaves  a  square  block  of  beef. 

The  Feeder.  Feeders,  or  store  cattle,  are  those  in  thin 
condition,  which  lack  finish  and  must  be  fattened  before 
slaughter.  Feeders  should  conform  to  the  general  beef  type, 
as  the  lower-set,  blocky  ones  gain  faster.  A  good  feeder 
should  have  a  short,  broad  head,  a  strong  jaw,  a  wide  muzzle, 
and  large  eyes  and  nostrils,  a  wide  back  and  loin,  a  deep  rib, 

19—  289 


290 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


and  a  long,  deep  hind  quarter.  Long-headed,  narrow- 
chested,  high-flanked  steers  do  not  make  satisfactory  gains 
and  are  not  desirable  as  feeders.  Rather  fine  bone,  loose 
skin,  and  silky  hair  are  preferable,  since  they  denote  quality. 
The  Fat  Animal.  The  finished  animal  should  have  the 
low,  blocky  form  mentioned,  with  the  short  broad  head  and 


Figure  113. — Good  beef — the  round. 


the  quality  of  the  feeder,  carrying  a  good  proportion  of  meat 
in  the  regions  of  the  valuable  cuts.  The  neck  should  be 
short  and  thick:  the  shoulders,  smooth;  the  chest,  deep  and 
full;  the  back,  long,  broad,  and  deeply  fleshed;  the  loin, 
broad  and  thick;  the  hind  quarters,  long,  full  and  deep,  the 
meat  being  carried  well  down  to  the  hocks.  An  animal  of 
the  above  type  will  give  a  good  carcass  of  first-class  meat, 
when  dressed.  Good  meat  is  bright  red  and  shows  traces  of 
fat  through  it. 

The  Carcass.  One  of  the  principal  concerns  of  the 
butoher  is  the  killing  or  dressing  percentage,  that  is,  the  pro- 
portion of  meat  to  live  weight.  Cattle  dress  out  all  the 
way  from  fifty  to  sixty-nine  per  cent,  though  the  latter  is  a 
mark  very  rarely  reached. 

There  is  a  great  difi^erence  in  the  value  of  the  different 
cuts  of  meat.  The  best  cuts  are  found  in  the  back  and  hind 
quarter.  The  back  furnishes  the  rib  roasts;  the  loin,  the 
sirloin  and  porterhouse,  or  T-bone  steaks;  the  rump,  the  tip 
roasts;  the  thigh,  the  round  steak.    From  the  neck, shoulders, 


BEEF  CATTLE  291 

brisket,  and  flanks,  come  the  cheaper  cuts  of  beef  used  for 
boiHng  pieces,  stews,  soup,  and  sausage.  The  tenderer  parts 
of  the  beef  bring  the  higher  prices. 

BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

Shorthorn.    The  Shorthorn  cattle,  once  called  Durham, 
originated  in  eastern  England  along  the  Tees  river  in  the 


Figure  114. — Champion  two-year-old  Shorthorn  cow. 

counties  of  Durham  and  York.  The  native  cattle  were 
good  grazers,  and  by  selection  among  these  and  by  the  intro- 
duction of  some  cattle  from  Holland,  the  Shorthorn  breed 
was  developed.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds,  having 
been  improved  since  about  1600. 

In  color,  the  Shorthorns  are  mixed,  being  red,  white,  or 
roan,  or  a  mixture  of  these.  The  roan  is  the  only  charac- 
teristic color.  In  size.  Shorthorns  are  among  the  largest 
of  cattle,  bulls  often  weighing  over  a  ton  and  cows  from 


292 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


1,400  pounds  up.  Shorthorn  cattle  should  be  low-set, 
blocky,  and  broad-backed.  As  a  breed  they  are  squarely 
built  with  a  heavy  hind  quarter  and  great  width  of  loin. 
These  cattle  have  a  clean-cut  head  and  show  considerable 
quality,  style,  and  finish. 

Doing  well  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions,  they  are 
the  most  widely  distributed  of  any  breed.    Under  range 


Figure  115. — A  prize  winning  Hereford  bull. 


conditions  Shorthorns  do  very  well  and  so  they  are  popular 
in  the  West.  As  milkers  they  surpass  all  other  beef  breeds, 
some  of  them  being  very  satisfactory  at  the  pail.  To  a 
Shorthorn  cow  belongs  the  distinction  of  having  been  the 
highest  priced  bovine  ever  sold,  up  to  1915,  $40,600  having 
been  paid  for  the  Eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva. 

Polled  Durham.  The  Polled  Durham  is  an  American 
breed  developed  from  the  Shorthorns,  differing  from  them 
only  in  the  absence  of  horns.  This  breed  is  rather  popular 
in  sections  of  the  East,  but  little  known  in  the  range  states. 

Hereford.  Herefordshire  in  western  England  is  the  home 
of  the  Hereford  cattle.    This  breed  was  developed  at  about 


BEEF  CATTLE 


293 


the  same  time  as  the  Shorthorn,  dating  back  to  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  ancestors  of  Hereford  cattle  came  from 
the  native  cattle  of  England  with  probably  a  few  additions 
from  the  Flanders  and  Holland  cattle. 

Hereford  cattle  are  very  uniform  in  characteristics;  in 
color,  for  instance,  they  are  red  with  white  faces,  white  along 


Figure  116. — A  prize  winning  Hereford  cow. 

the  underline  and  sometimes  on  the  back.  In  size  the 
Herefords  are  large,  ranking  close  to  the  Shorthorns.  This 
breed  conforms  to  the  ideal  beef  type  very  closely,  as  they 
are  low-set,  smooth,  and  fine  in  bone.  The  body  of  the 
Hereford  is  cylindrical,  with  a  round,  plump  appearance. 

As  range  cattle  Herefords  rank  very  high;  for  they  are 
good  grazers,  doing  well  on  rough  range,  and  readily  with- 
standing hardship.  As  milkers  they  do  not  rank  high;  yet 
they  usually  feed  their  calves  well.  They  are  widely  dis- 
tributed and  are  proving  expecially  useful  in  the  range  sec- 
tion of  the  United  States,  where  they  are  probably  the  most 
popular  breed. 


294  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Aberdeen-Angus.  The  Aberdeen-Angus  breed  of  cattle, 
known  as  Polled  Angus,  or  *'doddies,"  was  developed  in 
north  Scotland,  from  the  native  cattle  of  the  district. 

They  are  a  black,  hornless  breed  that  conforms  very 
closely  to  the  ideal  beef  type.     They  are  very  cylindrical 


Figure  117. — Black  Bird,  a  champion  Aberdeen-Angus  Cow 

in  body  with  a  smooth  appearance.  On  account  of  fine 
bone  and  hair  and  a  neat  appearance  throughout,  the  Aber- 
deen-Angus cattle  rank  high  in  quality.  In  size  the  breed 
ranks  well,  though  they  are  not  quite  so  large  as  Shorthorns. 
These  cattle  are  fair  grazers,  but  do  better  in  corn-belt  pas- 
tures than  on  the  range. 

As  milkers  they  do  not  rank  high,  but  seem  to  give  enough 
for  their  calves.  In  the  production  of  high-class  beef,  how- 
ever, the  Aberdeen  takes  first  rank;  for  they  have  won  more 
prizes  than  any  other  breed,  both  for  beef  steers  and  for 
carcasses. 

Galloway.  A  Scotch  breed  of  cattle  known  as  the  Gal- 
loway was  developed  in  the  hill  country  of  southwestern 


BEEF  CATTLE  295 

Scotland.  These  cattle  are  black  and  hornless  like  the 
Aberdeen-Angus,  but  differ  considerably  in  some  other  char- 
acteristics. The  Galloway  cattle  are  squarer  in  outline  than 
.the  Angus  and  they  have  a  longer,  thicker  coat  of  hair  which 
is  more  like  fur.  They  produce  high-class  beef  and  do  well 
in  extremely  cold  climates.  In  the  West,  where  Shorthorns 
and  Herefords  are  the  common  types,  they  are  little  used. 

DUAL-PURPOSE  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 

Dual-purpose,  or  general-purpose,  cattle  are  those  sup- 
posed to  be  good  for  both  beef  and  milk.  Some  breeders 
claim  that  animals  of  this  type  can  be  profitably  produced, 
but  as  a  rule  the  special  dairy  or  beef  cattle  are  regarded 
as  more  desirable. 

Red  Polled.  The  Red  Polled  breed  originated  in  Eng- 
land and  has  met  with  some  favor  in  this  country.  This 
breed,  usually  solid  red  in  color,  is  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  strictly  beef  breeds,  and  more  beefy  in  appearance  than 
the  dairy  breeds.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  will  ever  be 
popular  on  the  ranges.     Very  few  are  found  in  the  West. 

Devon.  The  Devon  cattle,  a  red,  horned  breed,  origi- 
nated in  southwestern  England.  These  cattle  are  large  and 
smooth,  with  fine  bone.  Being  rather  slow  feeders,  they 
have  met  with  but  little  popularity  in  the  United  States. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  probable  origin  of  cattle? 

2.  Describe  a  typical  beef  animal,  that  is,  the  beef  type. 

3.  Name  the  kinds  of  beefsteak.     Which  are  best?     Why? 

4.  Name  the  breeds  of  beef  cattle. 

5.  Briefly  describe  each. 

6.  What  are  dual-purpose  cattle? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.     If  possible,  examine  a  beef  to  see  the  kinds  of  meat.     It  might 
be  possible  to  visit  a  butcher  shop. 


296  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Collect  pictures  of  the  breeds  of  beef  cattle. 

3.  Visit  some  farm  nearby  on  which  are  kept  pure-bred  beef  cattle. 

Learn  the  name  of  the  breed.  Observe  the  general  color  and 
the  location  and  color  of  spots.  Note  the  shape  and  size  of 
body,  the  shape  of  head  and  horns,  and  the  fineness  of  skin 
and  hair. 

4.  If  time  permits  practice  scoring  by  a  score  card. 

5.  Collect  prices  on  live  and  dressed  beef. 

REFERENCES 

Beef  Production,  Mumford. 

Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges,  Barnes. 
Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock,  Vaughan. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock,  Gay. 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Plumb. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  183.     Meat  on  the  Farm:  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping. 

612.     Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle. 

811.    The  Production  of  Baby  Beef. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
DAIRY  CATTLE 

THE  DAIRY  TYPE 

There  is  a  rather  close  relation  existing  between  the  form 
of  an  animal  and  its  use.  This  fact  has  already  been  seen 
in  case  of  beef  cattle,  which  are  blocky  in  form  and  thickly 
covered  with  flesh,  their  function  being  to  produce  the  most 
meat  possible.  Experiments  have  shown  that  cows  of  this 
type  do  not  produce  as  much  milk  and  butter-fat  on  the 
average  as  cows  of  another  type.  It  has  been  shown  that 
they  require  more  feed  for  the  production  of  a  given  amount 
of  milk  or  butter-fat,  and  that  they  dry  off  earlier  than  cows 
of  the  other  type.  Since  the  function  of  dairy  cattle  is  to 
produce  milk  and  butter-fat,  very  little  of  their  feed  is  stored 
in  their  bodies  as  flesh.  In  performing  this  function  certain 
parts  of  the  body  have  been  worked  more  than  other  parts. 
Therefore,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  nature,  that  great 
exercise  causes  great  development,  we  find  the  parts  of  the 
cow  used  most  in  making  milk  are  more  highly  developed 
than  the  parts  of  her  body  that  are  less  exercised. 

The  Udder.  Of  course,  the  udder,  being  the  immediate 
factory  where  the  milk  is  made,  is  the  point  of  chief  consid- 
eration. It  must  be  large,  well-shaped,  and  of  fine  quality, 
not  meaty. 

Milk  Veins.  It  is  essential  to  a  good  dairy  cow,  that  she 
have  a  strong,  well  developed  blood  circulation;  for  this  is 
the  agency  which  distributes  the  prepared  raw  materials 
(the  digested  food)  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body  where 
they  are  most  needed.  Especially  important  is  the  blood 
supply  to  the  udder.    This  quantity  can  be  judged  in  a  gen- 

297 


298 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  118. 


-Showing  structure  and  epithelial  cells  of 
the  udder. 


eral  way  by  the 
amount  of 
blood  leaving 
the  udder  in  the 
so-called  milk 
veins  extending 
forward  along 
either  side  of 
the  abdomen  in 
front  of  the 
udder,  and  en- 
tering the  ab- 
dominal wall 
through  openings  called  milk  wells.  It  is,  therefore,  im- 
portant that  these  veins  be  as  large  and  branching  as 
possible,  showing  a  capacity  to  carry  large  amounts  of  blood. 
The  size  of  the  milk  vein  can  easily  be  determined  by  insert- 
ing the  end  of  the  finger  in  the  milk  well  and  noting  its  size. 
Barrel.  No  matter  how  large  and  perfect  any  factory 
is,  it  cannot  turn  out  manufactured  goods  without  raw 
materials  in  abundance.  Milk  is  made  from  the  food  the  cow 
eats.  In  order,  therefore,  to  have  plenty  of  raw  material 
on  hand  from  which  to  produce  milk,  large  amounts  of  feed 
must  be  eaten  and 
be  well  digested. 
The  conclusion, 
then,  is  inevitable : 
the  digestive  or- 
gans of  a  cow  must 
be  large  and  vig- 
orous. This,  of 
course,  means  that 
a  good  dairy  cow 
will  have  a  large 

Karrol     or   rr»ir^r^lo         Figure    119. — Diagram    showing    blood  supply  to  the 
uaixci,  ui    uiiuuie.  ujjder  of  a  dairy  cow. 


-•^-r^ 


DAIRY  CATTLE  299 

Chest.  However  great  the  capacity  of  any  factory  or 
however  large  the  amount  of  raw  material  supplied,  note- 
worthy stores  of  the  finished  products  cannot  be  produced 
if  the  machinery  is  weak,  frail,  and  short-lived.  Just  so 
with  the  dairy  cow.  She  must  be  healthy,  vigorous,  and  have 
a  strong  constitution  if  she  proves  capable  of  standing  up 
under  the  severe  strain  of  producing  large  quantities  of  milk, 
and  giving  birth  to  healthy  vigorous  calves.  These  points, 
vigor  and  strong  constitution,  are  indicated  by  great  chest 
capacity  as  shown  by  a  deep  chest  and  large  heart  girth, 
allowing  ample  room  for  large,  vigorous  vital  organs  (heart 
and  lungs);  and  by  a  large,  bright,  full  eye,  large  nostrils, 
and  a  broad,  strong  muzzle. 

Temperament.  The  so-called  dairy  type  has  been  pro- 
duced as  explained  above  and  is  built  around  the  points 
there  mentioned.  First,  the  dairy  cow  should  have  an  active, 
highly  organized  temperament  with  strong  nerve  force.  This 
is  shown  by  her  being  lean,  spare,  and  angular  and  carrying 
no  surplus  flesh.  A  large,  bright,  active  eye  goes  with  a  good 
dairy  temperament.  Viewed  from  the  side,  she  should  be 
deeper  through  the  hind  part  of  her  body  than  in  front, 
showing  an  inclination  to  a  wedge  shape.  From  the  rear 
and  above,  another  wedge  is  seen,  broad  across  the  hooks,  or 
hip  bones,  and  narrowing  down  to  a  point  at  the  withers. 

Conformation.  A  more  detailed  examination  of  the 
dairy  cow  should  reveal  a  lean,  shapely  head  with  broad, 
strong  muzzle  and  jaw,  a  full,  bright,  active  eye,  ears  medium 
sized  and  of  fine  texture,  and  horns,  when  present,  that  show 
refinement  and  quality  throughout.  The  neck  is  thin  and 
usually  somewhat  long.  The  shoulders  are  prominent  and 
lacking  in  covering  and  come  together  in  sharp  withers  at 
the  top.  The  back  should  be  straight,  the  spinal  processes 
prominent,  with  little  covering  and  having  an  openness  be- 
tween them  that  is  entirely  absent  in  the  beef  type.  The 
body  should  be  long  and  deep.     The  ribs  are  far  apart  though 


300 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


not  SO  wide  sprung  as  in  beef  cattle.  They  should  be  long, 
giving  great  capacity  to  the  digestive  and  vital  organs.  The 
space  should  be  long  from  the  attachment  of  the  last  rib  to 
the  hip  bone  and  from  the  hip  bone  to  the  pin  bone.     Lean- 


Figure  120— A  typical  head  of  a  Jersey  bull. 


ness  and  prominence  of  bones  should  characterize  the  rump. 
The  hind  quarters  should  be  thin  and  spare,  leaving  ample 
room  between  the  legs  for  a  large  udder. 

The  udder  should  be  large,  and  attached  high  behind  and 
far  forward.    The  four  quarters  should  be  equally  developed 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


301 


and  not  too  distinctly  divided  by  grooves.  The  udder  should 
be  free  from  meatiness  and  when  milked  out  should  collapse 
and  be  very  loose  and  pliable,  showing  that  the  size  is  due 
entirely  to  the  active  milk-producing  cells.  The  milk  veins 
leaving  the  udder  in  front  should  be  large  and  tortuous, 
extend  far  forward  on  the  body,  and  enter  the  abdomen 


Figure  121. — A  pure-bred  Jersey  cow — a  prize  winner. 

through  large  milk  wells,  thus  showing  a  large  blood  supply 
to  the  udder.  If  a  cow  has  more  than  one  milk  well  on  a 
side,  so  much  the  better. 

Quality,  desired  in  the  dairy  cow  as  in  all  other  classes  of 
animals,  is  shown  in  about  the  same  way;  namely,  thin  pli- 
able skin,  fine,  silky  hair;  and  fine,  dense  bone  and  horn. 
These  characteristics  are  important. 

Dairy  Bulls.  In  dairy  bulls  the  same  general  dairy  type 
is  demanded  as  in  dairy  cows  except  that  the  bull  must  show 
pronounced  masculinity  by  having  a  burly  head  and  a  well- 
developed  crest  on  the  neck.  Dairy  bulls  usually  carry 
more  flesh  and  show  less  of  the  wedge  shape  than  the  cows  of 


302 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


the  same  breed.     Aside  from  this  difference  the  desirable 
points  are  very  similar. 

As  mentioned  above,  no  matter  which  of  the  four  dairy 
breeds  is  being  considered,  the  dairy  type  just  described 
should  be  found  in  all  its  points. 


Figure  122 


1.  uui  i  lie.siim  bull. 


DAIRY  BREEDS 

The  Jersey  originated  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  which  has 
a  land  area  of  about  40,000  acres  in  the  English  Channel;  they 
developed,  supposedly,  from  native  stock  of  the  island,  mixed 
with  cattle  from  the  neighboring  districts  of  France.  They 
have  been  kept  pure  by  laws  prohibiting  all  foreign  cattle 
from  landing  on  the  island  except  for  immediate  slaughter. 
Not  until  1850  were  Jerseys  imported  to  this  country,  but 
since  then  large  numbers  have  been  brought  over.  They 
are  perhaps  the  smallest  of  the  dairy  cattle,  the  cows  weigh- 
ing from  seven  hundred  to  eleven  hundred  pounds,  and 
mature  bulls  about  thirteen  hundred  pounds.     In  color  they 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


303 


are  fawn,  though  this  varies  from  a  very  light  to  an  almost 
black  color.  White  occurs,  though  not  popular;  yet  some 
of  the  greatest  animals  of  the  breed  have  had  white  markings. 
The  most  striking  features  of  the  Jerseys  are  beauty,  color, 
short  dish-faces,  prominent,   beautiful   eyes,   and  deer-like 


Figure  123. — A  champion  butter-fat  cow  of  the  world.      She  produced  in  one  year 
27,762  lbs.  of  milk  and  1,205.1  lbs.  of  butter-fat. 


calves.  They  have  always  been  noted  for  their  rich  milk, 
containing  as  it  does  from  four  and  one  half  to  six  per  cent 
fat.  Their  milk  yield  is  not  so  large  as  some  of  the  other 
breeds,  though  its  richness  brings  the  total  fat  production 
up  to  a  high  figure.  One  Jersey  cow,  Sophia  19th,  of  Hood 
Farm,  produced  in  one  year  999.14  pounds  of  fat  and 
and  17,557.75  pounds  of  milk. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  were  developed  in  Holland. 
This  type  has  been  known  upwards  of  two  thousand  years. 
Of  course  the  breed  has  been  considerably  improved  in  that 


304  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

time,  but  the  foundation  stock  seems  to  have  been  the  native 
cattle  of  that  country. 

Much  of  the  best  land  in  Holland  is  below  the  level  of 
the  sea,  the  water  being  held  back  by  immense  dikes.  Grasses 
grow  rather  luxuriantly,  though  they  are  of  the  coarser,  less 


Figure  124. — Langwater  Dairy  Maid.     Sold  for  $6,150.     When  eight  years  old  she 
produced  16,949.2  lbs.  of  milk  and  812.66  lbs.  of  butter-fat. 

nutritious  varieties.  Thus  the  animals  developed  there  have 
adapted  themselves  to  these  conditions  and  are  able  to  utilize 
considerable  quantities  of  the  coarser  feeds. 

No  doubt  the  early  Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  and 
vicinity  brought  over  their  own  breed  of  cattle.  We  have 
record  of  a  definite  importation  in  1795;  but  not  until  1861 
and  after  were  large  importations  made  and  the  animals 
kept  pure. 

These  cattle  are  the  largest  of  the  five  dairy  breeds,  the 
cows  weighing  from  twelve  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred  pounds 
and  bulls  from  nineteen  hundred  to  twenty-five  hundred 
pounds.     In  color  they  are  black-and-white  spotted,  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


305 


proportion  varying  from  almost  pure  white  to  almost  pure 
black.  Their  heads  are  inclined  to  be  long,  narrow  and  plain, 
and  the  horns  often  appear  small.  The  body  is  large  and 
roomy  with  the  udder  often  very  large.     There  is  consider- 


Figure  125. — A  noted  Ayrshire  bull  showing  type,  quality  and  smoothness  found 
so  highly  developed  in  this  breed. 


able  difference  in  the  type  of  Holstein  cows,  some  carrying 
decidedly  more  flesh  than  others  which  adhere  more  strictly 
to  the  dairy  type.  They  all  lack  the  refinement,  quality, 
and  beauty  characteristic  of  the  Jersey. 

Holstein  cows  give  more  milk  than  any  other  breed, 
though  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  it  is  lower.  About  three  per 
cent  is  common  and  four  per  cent  is  unusual.  One  cow, 
Dutchess  Skylark  Ormsby,  gave  in  one  year  27,761.7  pounds 
of  milk  and  1,205.09  pounds  of  fat,  this  being  the  present 
(1917)  world  record  for  butter-fat. 

Guernsey  Cattle  originated  on  the  island  of  that  name, 
near  the  Island  of  Jersey.     The  ancestry  and  conditions  of 


20— 


306 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


development  of  the  Guernseys  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
the  Jersey  cattle,  though  somewhat  more  care  seems  to  have 
been  taken  in  the  early  breeding  of  the  Jersey. 

The  first  importation  of  Guernsey  cattle  to  the  United 
States  occurred  about  1850.  These  were  brought  directly 
from  the  Isle  of  Guernsey  in  the  English  Channel. 


Figure  126.  —  Lilly  of  Willow-Moor,  a  noted  Ayrshire  cow  having  a  record  of 
22,106  lbs.  of  milk  containing  888.7  lbs.  of  butter-fat  and  showing  good  type 
and  smoothness. 


Guernsey  cattle  are  somewhat  larger  and  more  uniform 
than  Jerseys;  the  cows  weigh  about  one  thousand  pounds, 
and  bulls  about  fifteen  hundred  pounds.  Their  color  ranges 
from  a  light  to  a  dark  fawn,  with  or  without  white  markings. 
In  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  and  in  per  cent  of  fat  the 
production  of  the  Guernsey  cow  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Jersey.  Mume  Cowan,  the  champion  cow  of  the  Guern- 
sey breed,  produced  24,008.0  pounds  of  milk  and  1,098.18 
pounds  of  fat. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


307 


Ayrshire  cattle  are  a  Scotch  breed  originating  in  the 
county  of  Ayr  in  southwest  Scotland,  the  region  made  famous 
by  Robert  Burns.  Most  of  the  land,  except  near  the  sea, 
is  rather  hilly  and  rough,  though  it  produces  an  abundance 
of  good  grazing  in  the  summer.  Back  from  the  sea  the 
winters  are  rather  severe. 


Figure  127. 


-A  noted  Brown  Swiss  bull,  Reuben  2927,  showing  type  and  rugged- 
ness  desired. 


This  breed  is  regarded  by  all  authorities  to  have  been 
founded  later  than  the  three  preceding  dairy  breeds.  Its 
origin  is  not  definitely  known,  though  the  breed  is  thought 
to  be  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  the  native  cattle  of  the 
district,  with  Shorthorns  and  with  Jersey,  Guernsey  and 
Alderney  cattle. 

Ayrshires  are  not  numerous  in  the  United  States,  though 
some  good  herds  are  kept.  There  seems  to  be  no  definite 
record  of  their  introduction  to  this  country  before  1837. 

In  size  this  breed  is  about  the  same  as  the  Guernseys. 
They  are  rounder  and  plumper  and  carry  more  meat  than 


308  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

any  other  dairy  breed.  The  color  may  be  red  and  white,  or 
brown  and  white,  either  color  predominating.  The  head  of 
the  Ayrshire  is  very  characteristic,  carrying  as  it  does  rather 
long,  out-and-upturned  horns.  The  udders  are  perhaps  more 
nearly  perfect  than  the  udders  of  any  other  breed,  being 


Figure  128. — Lottie,  a  pure-bred  Brown  Swiss  cow,  who  gave  17,593  lbs.  ot  milk 
and  664.2  lbs.  of  fat  in  official  record. 

exceptionally  well-balanced  and  carried  close  up  to  the  body 
though  the  teats  are  often  small. 

The  milk  and  butter  records  of  the  Ayrshire  are  only  fair. 
The  milk  usually  tests  three  and  two  tenths  to  four  per  cent. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  are  native  to  the  cantons  of  Zurich, 
St.  Galen,  Luzern,  and  Schwyz  in  northeast  Switzerland. 
This  breed  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  existence.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  descended  from  cattle  found  in  this  region  since  before 
the  beginning  of  human  history.  This  belief  rests  on  the 
discovery  in  ruins  of  the  Swiss  Lake  Dwellers  of  skeletons  of 
animals  closely  resembling  the  characteristics  of  the  present 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


309 


Brown  Swiss.     Very  little  infusion  of  foreign  blood  is  thought 
to  have  taken  place  in  their  development. 

The  Brown  Swiss  is  one  of  the  larger  dairy  breeds.  The 
cows  weigh  from  twelve  to  fourteen  hundred  pounds  and  the 
bulls  frequently  pass  the  ton  mark.  In  color  they  vary  from 
a  silver  gray  to  a  deep,  rich,  brownish-black.  A  lighter  strip 
down  their  backs  and  a  yellowish  muzzle  are  their  two  chief 
marks.  The  quiet,  nonresentful  disposition  of  this  breed 
is  very  noticeable  and  recommends  them  to  many  who 

STUDENTS'  SCORE  CARD 

DAIRY  COW 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DAIRY  COW 


DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT  AND  MILK  SECRETING  SYSTEM— fifty  points 

1.  Udder,  large  but  not  pendulous;  attached  high  behind  and  extend- 

ing far  forward;  pliable  and  free  from  meatiness;  evenly  quartered; 
not  deeply  indented  between  teats;  udder  veins  numerous  and 
plainly  visible 

2.  Veins  and  Wells,  milk  veins  large,  long,  active,  tortuous,  branching 

and  entering  numerous  large  wells 

3.  Teats,  evenly   and    symmetrically   placed   on   quarters;   convenient 

and  uniform  in  size  and  length;  free  from  lumps,  warts  and 
tendency  to  leak 

4.  Body,  angular;  wedge  shape;  lean  and  clear  cut  throughout 

5.  Disposition,  active,  with  good  nerve  control,  not  flighty 

6.  Eye,  prominent  but  not  popping;  bright  and  quiet 

FEEDING  CAPACITY— twenty  points 

7.  Barrel 

Deep — ribs  long,  abdomen  large  but  firmly  held  up  by  strong 
muscular  development 

Wide — ribs  well  sprung;  loin  broad  and  strong . 

Long — ribs  far  apart  and  broad,  spinal  processes  prominent,  loin 
long 

8.  Muzzle,  broad,  lips  full 

9.  Jaws,  deep  and  strong 

CONSTITUTIONAL  STRENGTH  AND  VIGOR— twenty  points 

10.  Chest,  deep,  wide  on  floor  and  full  at  elbows,  indicating  lung  capacity 

11.  Carriage,  alert  and  energetic 

12.  Skin,  thin,  loose  and  mellow,  indicating  good  circulation  and  secre- 

tion; hair  fine 

13.  Nostrils,  large  and  expanded 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  showing  large  size,  symmetry  and  balance  of 

parts  into  a  completed  whole — ten  points 

14.  Head,  lean,  broad  between  eyes,  features  clean  cut  and  intelligent .  . 

15.  Neck,    thin,    lean,   trim,   rather  long,    joined   neatly   to   head   and 

shoulders 

16.  Withers,  thin  and  not  open 

17.  Top-line,  straight  and  strong,  carrying  level  over  tail  head 

18.  Breed  Character,  pure-breds  to  show  size,   markings  and  general 

characteristics  required;  grades  to  show  the  predominence  of  the 
blood  of  some  dairy  breed 

TOTAL 


Score 


30 


100 


310  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

dislike  the  active,  nervous  temperaments  of  most  of  the 
other  dairy  breeds. 

Records  give  the  date  of  their  first  importation  to  the 
United  States  as  1869.  Since  that  date  the  numbers  have 
increased  by  importation  and  breeding  till  there  are  now 
more  than  11,000  registered  in  the  herd  books  of  the  American 
Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association. 

Until  1908  they  were  classed  as  dual-purpose  cattle,  but 
since  that  date  the  association  has  been  emphasizing  their 
dairy  qualities  and  they  are  now  recognized  as  a  distinctly 
dairy  breed.  The  Registry  of  Production  for  the  breed  was 
established  in  1911.  Butter-fat  records  for  cows  of  this 
breed  are  not  especially  high.  Seven-day  records  above  14 
pounds  of  fat  and  yearly  records  exceeding  700  pounds  are 
rare.  The  milk  usually  tests  between  three  and  one  half 
and  four  per  cent. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Illustrate  the  relation  existing  between  the  form  of  an  animal  and 

its  use. 

2.  What  has  been  the  underlying  cause  of  the  development  of  dairy 

type? 

3.  Of  what  value  is  constitution  in  dairy  cattle?     How  is  strong 

constitution  shown? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  dairy  temperament?     How  is  it  shown? 

5.  Give  a  brief  statement  of  the  origin  and  early  history  of  Jersey 

cattle. 

6.  What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Jersey? 

7.  Where  and  under  what  conditions  did  Holstein-Friesian  cattle 

develop? 

8.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Holstein-Friesian 

cattle? 

9.  Give  briefly  the  early  history  and  development  of  Guernsey  cattle? 

10.  How  do  Guernseys  differ  from  Jerseys  and  Holsteins? 

11.  Discuss  the  history,  development,  and  distinguishing  character- 

istics of  Ayrshire  and  Brown  Swiss  cattle. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  311 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

To  determine  the  production  of  dairy  cows,  secure  scales,  milk 
sheet,  test  bottles,  milk  thief,  and  Babcock  testing  machine. 

Note:  If  a  milk  thief  is  not  available,  mix  thoroughly  and  re- 
move a  small  quantity  with  a  dipper  or  a  spoon. 

Weigh  the  milk  of  each  cow  each  milking  for  one  month. 
Record  the  weight  each  time  on  the  milk  sheet  under  the 
proper  cow's  name.  For  some  one  week  during  the  month  take 
a  composite  sample  of  each  cow's  milk  by  putting  a  small  sample 
of  each  of  the  fourteen  milkings  into  a  properly  labeled  sample 
bottle.  A  pint  fruit  jar  may  be  used  if  a  regular  sample  bottle 
is  not  available.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  weighed  thoroughly 
stir  it,  preferably  by  pouring  it  from  one  pail  to  another,  and 
immediately  take  the  sample.  This  can  be  done  with  a  regular 
milk  sampler  or  with  a  dipper.  In  the  summer  or  if  the  sample 
bottles  are  kept  where  it  is  warm,  a  preservative  will  be  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  milk  sweet.  A  few  drops  of  formalin  or  a 
special  corrosive  sublimate  milk  preserving  tablet  may  be  used 
in  each  bottle.  At  the  end  of  the  week  test  the  various  samples 
for  butter-fat  (see  Chap.  XLV.)  At  the  end  of  each  month 
total  each  cow's  milk  and  multiply  the  total  weight  by  the  test 
as  found  during  the  test  week  to  get  the  amount  of  butter-fat. 
If  this  is  multiplied  by  the  market  value  per  pound  the  value 
of  the  fat  is  obtained. 

To  find  the  cost  of  feeding  a  dairy  cow,  weigh  separately  all  feeds 
given  the  cow  for  two  days  during  each  month.  Taking  these 
weights  as  averages  determine  how  much  of  each  feed  she  has 
consumed  during  the  month.  Multiply  the  monthly  weight 
of  each  feed  thus  obtained  by  its  market  price  to  get  the  value 
of  the  feed  eaten. 

Note:  Accurate  figures  on  the  profit  of  dairy  cows  can  only  be 
obtained  by  taking  into  account,  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  feed 
and  the  value  of  the  product,  the  interest  and  the  depreciation 
on  the  investment  involved,  the  cost  of  bull  service,  the  cost 
of  labor,  insurance,  etc.,  and  the  value  of  the  calf  and  manure 
produced. 

Use  the  results  of  Exercises  1  and  2,  Subtract  the  cost  of  the 
feed  consumed  by  the  cow  from  the  value  of  the  butter-fat  pro- 
duced during  the  same  period  and  this  gives  the  profit  above 
cost  of  feed. 


312  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


REFERENCES 


Productive  Dairying,  Washburn. 

Dairy  Cattle  Feeding  and  Management,  Larsen  and  Putney. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  Eckles. 

Dairy  Farming,  Eckles  and  Warren. 

Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock,  Vaughan. 

The  Breeds  of  Live  Stock,  Gay. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 

Livestock  Judging  and  Selection,  Curtis. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock,  Gay. 

Judging  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Plumb. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.    55.     The  Dairy  Herd. 

106.     Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 

350.  The  Dehorning  of  Cattle. 

351.  The  Tubercuhn  Test  of  Cattle  for  Tuberculosis. 
355.     A  Successful  Poultry  and  Dairy  Farm. 

639.    Eradication  of  the  Cattle  Tick  Necessary  for  Profitable 

Dairying. 
689.    A  Plan  for  a  Small  Dairy  House. 
743.     The  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows. 
893.     Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle. 
Department  Bulletin  434.     Judging  the  Dairy  Cow  as  a  Subject 
of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
THE  HORSE 

Man's  most  useful  helper  among  the  domestic  animals 
is  probably  the  horse,  and,  on  account  of  this  help,  the  beauty 
and  intelligence  of  the  horse  have  been  the  theme  of  song 
and  story  almost  since  the  world  began. 

In  prehistoric  times  horses  were  small  animals  about  the 
size  of  a  fox  terrier  dog,  from  which  they  have  evolved  to 
their  present  size.  Although  the  remains  of  prehistoric 
horses  are  found  in  America,  there  were  probably  no  horses 
here  when  the  white  man  arrived. 

History.  The  first  horses  celebrated  in  history  to  any 
great  extent  are  the  Arabian,  a  small,  beautiful  pony  type 
found  in  the  desert  of  Arabia.  These  horses  were  used  as 
foundation  stock  for  a  number  of  breeds  and  had  much  to 
do  with  the  molding  of  modern  breeding.  Horses  of  the 
Arab  type,  but  coarser,  were  brought  first  to  America  from 
Spain  and  served  as  a  foundation  stock  for  our  wild  horses, 
Indian  ponies  and  mustangs. 

There  are  many  types  and  breeds  of  horses  used  now, 
varying  in  size  from  the  tiny  Shetland  of  150  to  300  pounds 
to  the  great  Shire  or  Percheron  of  2,000  to  2,400  pounds, 
and  ranging  in  speed  from  the  swift  running  Thoroughbred 
to  the  slow  drafter. 

Horses  differ  very  much  in  weight,  style,  and  speed;  yet 
all  can  be  judged  in  somewhat  the  same  way. 

In  general  appearance  a  horse  should  be  symmetrical, 
that  is,  about  the  same  from  ground  to  top  of  withers  as 
from  shoulder  point  to  tail.  The  horse  should  show  life, 
vigor  and  style  by  the  way  it  carries  the  head,  ear,  and  tail. 
A  slouchy,  hstless  appearance  is  detrimental. 

313 


314  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Conformation.  The  head  of  a  good  horse  is  of  fair  size 
and  bony  in  its  appearance,  with  a  straight  face,  a  broad, 
full  forehead,  and  large,  bright  eyes  that  show  intelligence. 
The  dished  face,  narrow  forehead,  and  small,  round  eye  are 
generally  marks  of  a  bad  disposition.  A  good  strong  jaw  is 
wanted,  as  it  is  the  mark  of  a  good  feeder.  The  muzzle 
should  be  rather  fine,  but  the  nostrils  large.  The  ears  should 
be  fairly  fine,  denoting  quality,  and  neatly  held,  showing 
style.  A  lop  ear  is  unsightly  and  generally  indicates  a  slug- 
gish disposition. 

The  neck  should  be  long  and  well-arched,  and  clean-cut 
about  the  throat  so  as  not  to  impair  breathing. 

The  shoulder  should  be  so  sloping  that,  when  viewed 
from  the  side,  the  neck  comes  out  on  top  of  the  body  and  not 
in  front  as  in  the  straight-shouldered  horse.  The  withers 
should  be  fine  and  fairly  prominent  in  all  breeds. 

The  body  of  the  horse  should  have  a  good  big  middle, 
with  long,  well-arched  ribs  and  a  low  flank.  Good  depth 
and  fair  width  are  wanted  in  order  to  get  the  capacity  for 
the  vital  organs.  Slim-bellied  horses  lack  endurance,  being 
generally  hard  to  keep  in  good  condition,  while  the  horse 
with  a  good  middle  and  low  flank,  showing  capacity,  is 
generally  easily  maintained.  The  back  should  be  straight; 
the  loin,  short,  broad,  and  well-muscled.  Stallions  and  geld- 
ings should  be  close-ribbed;  that  is,  the  last  rib  should  be 
close  to  the  point  of  the  hip,  making  the  loin  strong.  More 
length  and  roominess  is  wanted  in  mares. 

The  hind  quarter  should  be  heavy  and  well-muscled;  for 
a  horse  does  most  of  the  propelling  with  the  hind  parts.  The 
croup  should  be  long  and  straight,  for  this  adds  balance  and 
gives  more  room  for  muscles.  The  tail  should  attach  fairly 
high  and  be  carried  well  out.  The  width  should  be  carried 
down  into  the  quarters,  making  the  horse  heavy  through 
stifles  and  breech.  The  gaskin  should  be  neatly  turned,  but 
heavily  muscled. 


THE  HORSE  315 

The  legs  are  the  most  important  parts  of  the  horse.  ''No 
foot,  no  horse"  or  ''no  leg,  no  horse"  are  true  statements. 
The  front  legs  of  the  horse  are  straight  when  a  plumb  line 
dropped  from  the  shoulder  point  passes  through  the  center 
of  the  knee,  cannon,  and  foot.  When  viewed  from  the  side, 
a  plumb  line  dropped  from  center  of  forearm  should  pass 
through  the  knee  and  cannon  and  drop  back  of  the  foot.  A 
fairly  long  sloping  pastern  gives  elasticity  to  the  step, 
increasing  wearing  ability.  The  cannon  should  be  wide  and 
clean-cut  and  the  knee  deep  and  strong. 

The  front  feet  should  be  large  and  round  with  an  open 
heel  and  a  good  straight  hoof. 

The  hind  leg,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  should  be 
shaped  so  that  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  strike  the  back  of  the  hock  and  drop  parallel 
to  the  back  of  the  cannon.  This  gives  a  strong  leg  that  will 
withstand  wear.  If  the  leg  is  crooked,  curby-hocked,  as  it 
is  called,  the  conformation  is  weak.  When  viewed  from  be- 
hind, plumb  Unes  dropped  from  the  sides  of  the  tail  should 
bisect  the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot.  The  hocks  and  feet  are 
then  the  same  distance  apart.  A  wide,  bony,  clean-cut  hock 
that  is  supported  by  a  wide,  strong  cannon  is  desirable. 

Action  is  very  important  in  all  horses  and  should  be  care- 
fully considered.  At  the  walk  the  horse  should  travel  fast 
with  a  long,  straight  stride.  At  the  trot  the  same  straight 
action  is  wanted,  but  the  horse  should  travel  fast  and  fairly 
high.  In  draft  horses  the  walk  is  the  more  important, 
while  in  Hght  horses  the  trot  deserves  more  consideration. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 
Four  types  of  horses  are  recognized:     (1)   the  saddle 

type,  (2)  the  roadster  type,  (3)  the  carriage,  or  coach,  type, 

and  (4)  the  draft  type. 

The  Saddle  Type.     These  vary  from  the  small  pony  to 

the  hunter  in  size,  but  are  usually  horses  of  quahty,  with 

action  and  nerve. 


316 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  Arabian  is  a  small  but  wiry  pony  whose  native  home 
is  Arabia.  In  color  it  is  generally  bay,  chestnut,  gray,  and 
white,  with  now  and  then  a  brown  or  black.  Spotted,  or 
pinto,  horses  are  seldom  if  ever  found  among  true  Arabians. 


Figure  129 — Standard  Bred  trotter. 


Their  influence  on  modern  breeds  is  very  marked,   much  of 
the  speed  and  quality  of  our  horses  being  due  to  this  blood. 

The  Thoroughbred  is  an  English  breed  developed  from 
the  Arab  and  is  the  fastest  horse.  Thoroughbreds  are  most 
commonly  bay  and  chestnut,  and  range  in  weight  from  800 
to  1,150  pounds.     On  a  straightway  track  Salvator  ran  a 


THE  HORSE 


317 


mile  in  1.353^,  and  on  a  circular  track  Dick  Wells  made 


the  mile  in  1.37f. 


The  American  saddle  horse,  a  superior  type  of  riding 
horse,  developed  in  the  United  States  from  Thoroughbred 
ancestry,  is  a  horse  of  considerable  quahty  and  finish,  and  is 


Figure  130. — Coach,  or  carriage,  horse. 


variously  gaited,  having  in  addition  to  the  regular  walk, 
trot  and  canter,  the  rack  and  either  the  fox  trot  or  running 
walk.  Saddlers  range  from  900  to  1,150  pounds;  the  most 
common  colors  are  bay,  chestnut,  and  black. 

Another  type  of  saddle  horse  is  much  used.  He  varies 
in  type,  and  has  but  three  gaits:  walk,  trot  and  canter. 

Mustang  or  Broncho.  The  wild  horses  of  western  America 
are  of  the  saddle  type.  They  rank  in  endurance  and  sta- 
mina with  any  horse  known.     The  western  horse,  however, 


318 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


is  not  of  mongrel  blood;  for  his  ancestors  came  from  Spain 
and  are  of  the  hot-blooded  races  akin  to  the  Arab.  The 
greatest  fault  with  the  western  pony  is  the  lack  of  quality 
and  finish  and  the  small  size. 


Figure  131. — An  undefeated  grand  champion  Percheron  stallion. 


The  Roadster  T3rpe.  This  is  the  light  harness  horse  used 
for  fast  driving  and  racing. 

The  American  trotter,  or  pacer,  or  standard  bred,  the  greatest 
light  harness  horse  known,  was  developed  in  America  from 
Thoroughbred  ancestry.  This  breed  was  founded  by  the 
great  horse,  Hambletonian,  foaled  in  1849. 

There  is  no  distinct  type,  but  the  best  of  them  are  very 
symmetrical  and  stylish  with  quality. 


THE  HORSE 


319 


The  record  for  a  mile  at  the  trot  is  1 :58  held  by  Uhlan, 
and  at  the  pace  is  1 :55M  held  by  Dan  Patch. 

The  Orloff  trotter  is  a  Russian  breed  that  is  larger  than  the 
American  Type  and  not  so  fast. 


Figure  132. — A  champion  Shire  stallion. 


The  Coach,  or  Carriage,  Tjrpe.  This  is  the  heavy-harness 
type  used  more  with  heavy  carriages.  Though  showy  when 
in  action,  they  are  not  speedy.  Because  automobiles  have 
replaced  these  horses,  there  is  but  a  limited  market  for  them. 

The  Hackney  is  an  English  coach  breed  of  remarkable 
smoothness  and  very  high  action.  Hackneys  vary  in  size 
from  1,150  to  1,250  pounds.  The  common  colors  are 
chestnuts,  bays,  and  browns. 


320  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

French  CoacK  German  Coach,  and  Cleveland  Bay,  are  all  breeds 
of  this  type,  but  are  of  no  great  importance  in  America. 

The  Draft  Type.  This  is  seen  in  the  big,  slow-moving 
work  horse.  Drafters  should  weigh  at  least  1,600  to  2,400 
pounds.  Size  and  weight  are  the  prime  requisites  with  these 
horses  and  to  get  it  some  quaUty  and  finish  may  be  sacrificed. 


Figure  133. — A  champion  Clydesdale  stallion. 

The  Percheron,  the  most  generally  used  draft  horse  in  the 
United  States,  originated  in  France.  In  weight,  Percherons 
range  from  1,400  to  2,200  pounds.  In  colors,  gray  and  black 
predominate,  though  chestnut,  bay,  brown  and  roan  occa- 
sionally occur.  They  are  remarkably  smooth,  and  show 
quality  and  good  action  for  drafters.  Percherons  mature 
early  and  have  amiable  dispositions,  which  make  them 
generally  liked.  Crossed  on  common  mares  they  give  excel- 
lent results,  which  fact  accounts  for  their  popularity. 


THE  HORSE 


321 


Shire  horses,  formerly  called  the  English  cart  horse,  orig- 
inated in  the  south  of  England.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  largest  breeds,  weighing  up  to  2,400  pounds.  Bays, 
browns,  and  blacks  are  the  predominating  colors,  though 
chestnut  is  common,  and  gray  and  roan  appear  now  and 


■^^^3 

ft                "** 

WM 

^H 

W'\\ 

<«*«!»«. 

tl 

-S''Ps,'^st 

^fe^    '%    i^^^^^^^^i 

Figure    134. — Farceur,    an    undefeated  grand  champion  and  probably  the  most 
outstanding  specimen  of  the  Belgian  breed  in  America. 


then.  Shire  horses  are  heavy  boned  and  rather  rough  in 
their  make-up,  and  do  not  mature  as  early  as  some  of  the 
other  draft  breeds.  A  Shire  characteristic  is  the  long  hair 
or  feather  which  is  found  from  fetlock  to  knee  and  from 
fetlock  to  hock. 

Clydesdale  horses  originated  in  Scotland.  They  are,  in 
color,  the  same  as  Shires,  but  they  are  a  smaller  breed,  weigh- 
ing 1,600  to  2,200  pounds  and  having  less  of  the  feather  on 
the  legs,  but  have  more  slope  to  pasterns  and  better  feet 

21— 


322 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


than  almost  any  other  draft  breed.  Clydesdales  are  very 
snappy  actors,  have  wonderful  feet  and  legs  and  are  con- 
sidered good  wearing  horses  when  used  on  rough  roads. 

The  Belgian  horse,  originated  in  Belgium,  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  draft  breeds,  individuals  weighing  up  to  2,400 


Figure  J35. — A  Suffolk  Punch  stallion. 


pounds.  In  color  they  are  bay,  chestnut,  brown,  or  roan 
for  the  most  part,  though  gray  and  black  do  appear.  These 
horses  are  smoothly  made  hke  the  Percheron,  but  do  not 
have  quite  the  quaUty.  Belgians  are  becoming  rather  pop- 
ular  in  the  United  States. 

The  Suffolk  Punch  is  an  English  breed  of  draft  horse,  all 
of  which  are  chestnut  in  color.  This  horse  is  rather  smaller 
than  the  other  draft  breeds,  weighing  1,500  to  1,900  pounds. 
The  Suffolk  is  regarded  as  a  very  good  farm  horse,  but  as 
yet  very  few  of  them  are  being  raised  in  this  country. 


THE  HORSE 


323 


STUDENTS'  SCORE  CARD 
DRAFT  HORSES 


SCALE  OF  POINTS— FOR  GELDING 


1.     Age 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 


Height 

3.  Weight,  over  1500  lbs score  according  to  age 

4.  Form,  broad,  massive,  proportioned 

5.  Quality,  bone  clean,  fine,  yet  indicating  sufficient  substance;  tendons 

lean;  skin  and  hair  fine 

6.  Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

7.  Head,  lean,  medium  size 

8.  Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 

Neck,  muscled,  crest  high,  throatlatch  fine,  windpipe  large 

FORE QUARTERS: 

13.     Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth   snug,  extending  into  back 

Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

Forearm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported 

Cannons,  short,  lean;  sinews  large,  set  back 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense,  dark  color;  sole  con- 
cave; bars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  high,  one  half 
length  of  toe 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern 
and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from 
the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee  and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof 


10. 
11. 
12. 


14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 


21. 


Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth. 

Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick;  straight. . 
Underline,  flank  low 


BODT: 

22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
HINDQUARTERS: 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

Thighs,  muscular 

Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled 

Oaskins  or  Lower  Thighs,  wide,  muscled 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  wide,  straight 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  sinews  large,  set  back 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense,  dark  color;  sole  con- 
cave; bars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  high,  one  half 
length  of  toe 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the   buttock   should   fall   upon   the   center   of   the   hock,   cannon, 

Eastern  and  foot.     From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
ip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon  . . . 
ACTION: 

39.  Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long  balanced 

40.  Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 


29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 


38. 


TOTAL 100 


Score 


324 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


STUDENTS'  SCORE  CARD 
UGHT  HORSES 


SCALE  OF  POINTS— FOR  GELDING 


1 .  Age 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

2.  Weight 

3.  Height 

4.  Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 

5.  Quality,  bone  clean,  fine,  yet  indicating  sufficient  substance;  tendons 

defined;  skin  and  hair  fine 

6.  Temperament,  active,  good  position 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

7.  Head,  lean,  straight •.•••••. 

8.  Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  even 

9.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

10.  Forehead,  broad,  full 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried  not  far  apart 

12.  Neck,  mu.scled,  crest  high,  throatlatch  fine,  windpipe  large 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

13.  Shoulders,  long,  smooth,  with  muscle,  oblique,  extending  into  back 

and  muscled  at  withers 

14.  Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

15.  Forearm,  muscled,  long,  wide 

'     16.     Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported 

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

19.  Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45° . 

20.  Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense,  frog  large,  elastic; 

bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high 

21.  Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 

shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee,  cannon  pastern  and 
foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the 
center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 

knee  and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof 

BODY: 

22.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth 

23.  Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled 

25.  Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 

26.  Underline,  long;  flank  let  down 

HINDQUARTERS: 

27.  Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  wfcU  carried 

30.  Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 

31.  Quarters,  heavily  muscled,  deep 

32.  Oaskins  or  Lower  Thighs,  long,  wide,  muscled 

33.  Hocks,  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight 

34.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  sinews  large,  set  back 

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  strong 

30.     Pasterns,  sloping,  strong 

37.  Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense,  frog  large,  elastic; 

bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high 

38.  Legs,  viewed  from  behind  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 

the  buttock  should  fall   upon  the  center  of  the   hock,   cannon. 

Eastern  and  foot.     From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
ip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the 
ga.skin  in  the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  lino  of  the  cannon . . 
ACTION: 

.39.     Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

40.     Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high 

TOTAL 


Score 


THE  HORSE  325 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  ancient  horses. 

2.  Give  the  history  of  our  horses. 

3.  Describe  the  parts  of  a  good  horse. 

4.  Name  and  differentiate  the  types  of  horses. 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  breeds  of  horses. 

6.  Why  do  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  horse  deserve  so  much  attention? 

7.  What  is  quahty  in  a  horse? 

8.  How  valuable  is  weight  on  a  draft  horse? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  pictures  of  the  breeds  of  horses. 

2.  Collect  prices  on  various  kinds  of  horses. 

3.  Visit  one  or  more  farms  on  which  are  kept  some  pure  bred  horses. 

Observe  color,  general  shape,  size  and  shape  of  feet  and  legs, 
the  fineness  and  length  of  hair,  color  and  length  of  mane  and 
tail,  and  the  friendliness  suggested  in  the  head  and  eye. 

4.  If  convenient,  try  scoring  according  to  score  card. 

"^^'■:::?;t:r---  ■  "'   ;  REFERENCES 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  Gay. 

The  Horse,  Johnston. 

Studies  in  Horse  Breeding,  Carlson. 

The  Horse,  Roberts. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Plumb. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  Harper. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  179.     Horseshoeing. 

619.     Breeds  of  Draft  Horses. 

667.     Colts:  Breaking  and  Training. 

779.     How  to  Select  a  Sound  Horse. 

Department  Bulletin  No.  487.     Judging  Horses  as  a  Subject 
of  Instruction  in  Secondary  Schools. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

THE  HOG 

The  hog  is  the  most  lowly  of  farm  animals,  but  gains 
favor  from  the  fact  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  profitable,  being 
called  the  "mortgage  lifter  of  the  farm." 


^ 

4 

■ 

^^^X^^^^^P^^^H^^^BM^ 

^ 

^^^H 

K               ^Ka 

^^1 

Wg'    '                         ^ 

^^ 

■p^^j^ 

^       ^^i^j^^f^M 

Figure  i.>u.      A  t;.^^J  type  Bcrkiiuic. 


THE  LARD  TYPE 


The  lard-type  hog  is  a  low-set,  blocky  pig  with  consid- 
erable width  of  back  and  depth  of  rib.  These  are  the  com- 
mon hogs  of  the  corn  belt  and  form  about  nine  tenths  of 
all  hogs  sent  to  the  big  markets.  This  type  of  pig  should 
have  a  rather  short  fine  head,  with  good  width  between  the 
eyes,  fine  ears,  and  a  light  jowl.  The  neck  should  be  short 
and  full;  the  shoulders,  though  wide  and  deep,  should  be 
long  and  well-arched  and  of  an  even  width,  carried  out  well 
to  the  tail.  Good  width  and  depth  of  chest  is  liked,  as  it 
shows  constitution,  and  the  sides  should  be  deep  and  long. 

326 


THE  HOG 


327 


The  ham  should  be  heavily  fleshed,  deep  and  plump,  extend- 
ing down  to  the  hock.  The  feet  and  legs  in  lard-type  pigs 
are  important,  especially  those  retained  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Plenty  of  bone,  straight  pasterns,  and  good  feet  are 
desirable  to  bear  up  weight.  Straight  fine  hair  is  liked  on 
hogs,  as  it  is  an  indication  of  quality. 

Breeds.     The  Berkshire,  an  English  breed,  is  one  of  the 
oldest  breeds  and  is  most  generally  raised  in  the  United 


Figure  137. — A  Poland  China  sow. 

States.  Berkshires  are  black  with  usually  six  white  points: 
face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail.  The  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  the  Berkshires  are  the  upright  ears  and  a  dished  face, 
with  a  short,  sometimes  upturned,  nose. 

As  boars  weigh  up  to  700  pounds  and  sows  up  to  500 
pounds,  the  Berkshires  are  a  rather  large  breed.  Being  pro- 
lific and  good  mothers,  they  are  regarded  as  very  good  breed- 
ers. As  killers  the  Berkshires  rank  high,  for  they  produce 
a  superior  meat,  there  being  considerable  lean  in  propor- 
tion to  fat. 

Poland  China  hogs  originated  in  the  United  States  and 
are  a  typical  lard-type  breed.  Polands  are  black  with  six 
white  points  but  have  a  rather  short  body,  a  straight   face, 


328  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

and  drooping  ears.  Poland  Chinas  rank  medium  to  large, 
boars  weighing  on  an  average  of  about  600  pounds  and  sows 
about  500  pounds.  The  Poland  breed  has  been  criticised 
because  there  is  a  tendency  for  them  to  be  poor  breeders. 
To  avoid  this  sows  should  be  selected  that  have  long  bodies 
and  are  open  between  hips  and  ribs. 

The  Duroc  Jersey  is   a  red   American  breed   that  is  in 
general  of  the  same  type  as  the  Poland  China.     Duroc  Jer- 


Figure  138. — A  Duroc  Jersey  sow. 

seys  are  cherry  red  in  color,  have  a  straight  face  and  droop- 
ing ears.  In  size  the  Duroc  is  large,  boars  weighing  up  to 
GOO  pounds  and  sows  up  to  450  pounds.  They  are  very 
prolific  and  are  good  mothers,  this  being  an  important  point 
in  their  favor. 

Chester  White  pigs  originated  in  the  United  States  and 
are  quite  populaf  in  the  Middle  West.  This  breed  of  white 
hogs  is  typical  of  the  lard-type,  have  a  straight  or  slightly 
dished  face  and  drooping  ears.  In  size  the  Chester  Whites 
are  large,  boars  weighing  up  to  650  pounds  and  sows  to  450 
pounds.     Chesters  are  very  prolific  and  usually  raise  big 


THE  HOG 


329 


litters.  There  is  an  objection  to  white  hogs  in  the  hot,  dry 
cUmate  of  the  West,  as  they  are  Ukely  to  sun  scald  and  bhs- 
ter.  Where  plenty  of  shade  is  provided  white  hogs  do  well 
and  grow  rapidly. 

THE  BACON  TYPE 

The  bacon-type  hogs  are  in  general  longer-bodied,  nar- 
rower, and  stand  up  higher  on  their  legs  than  the  lard  type. 


Figure  139. — A  Chester  White  sow. 


In  the  bacon  type  the  head  is  rather  long,  the  jowl  light, 
the  neck  medium  in  length,  and  the  shoulders  rather  neat. 
The  back  is  narrow  but  of  uniform  width  and  should  be 
strongly  arched  and  carried  out  well  to  tail-head.  The 
sides,  the  region  from  which  the  bacon  is  cut,  should  be 
long  and  deep,  and  the  ham,  long  though  not  so  plump  as 
in  the  lard  type. 

Breeds.  The  Large  Yorkshire  is  a  white  English  breed 
of  bacon  hogs  that  is  very  popular  in  Canada,  but  is  found 
in  only  limited  numbers  in  the  United  States.  Yorkshire 
swine  are  very  large,  weighing  up  to  700  pounds  and  are 
good  breeders.     The  Yorkshire  and  Chester  White  breeds 


330  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

are  not  hard  to  distinguish,  because  the  Yorkshire  has  an 
upright  ear  and  a  dished  face. 

The  Tamworth  is  a  red  Enghsh  breed  that  has  found 
some  favor  in  the  West,  especially  in  Utah.  This  is  a  large 
breed,  boars  often  weighing  700  pounds  and  sows  500  pounds. 
Tamworth  hogs  are  prolific  and  are  good  mothers,  but  are 


Figure  140. — A  Yorkshire  sow. 

a  little  slow  in  maturing.  This  breed  has  a  very  long,  straight 
snout  and  upright  ears. 

The  Hampshire  breed,  formerly  called  the  Thin  Rined, 
is  another  English  bacon  breed  as  yet  little  known  in  the 
West.  Hampshires  are  a  black  and  white  breed,  the  white 
being  in  the  form  of  a  belt  extending  around  the  shoulders 
and  front  legs.  Hampshires  are  now  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant breeds  in  the  com  belt.  The  breed  has  lost  some 
of  its  bacon  type  and  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  lard  type. 

QUESTIONS 


1.  Name  and  describe  the  types  of 

2.  Name  and  describe  the  breeds  belonging  to  the  lard  tj^ae. 

3.  Name  and  describe  the  breeds  belonging  to  the  bacon  type. 


THE  HOG 


331 


EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Collect  pictures  of  breeds  of  swine. 

2.  Collect  prices  for  live  hogs,  dressed  hogs,  and  ham,  lard,  and  bacon. 

3.  Examine  one  or  more  breeds  of  hogs.     Note  color,  shape,  size, 

and  any  peculiarities  of  breed. 

4.  Practice  scoring  by  score  card. 


Figure  141. — A  Tamworth  sow. 

STUDENTS'  SCORE  CARD 

FAT  HOGS 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  FAT  HOGS 


Weight,  score  according  to  age 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  compact,  symmetrical;  standing  squarely 
on  legs 

Finish,  smooth,  deep,  even,  mellow  covering  throughout;  free  from 
wrinkles,  creases  and  lumps 

Quality,  hair  fine;  bone  fine;  smooth  and  refined  in  general  appear- 
ance   

Head,  face  short  and  broad;  snout  of  medium  length  and  not 
coarse;  eyes  full  and  bright;  ears  fine  and  of  medium  size 

Neck,  short,  thick  and  full;  jowl  broad,  full  and  firm 

Shoulders,  broad   deep,  full,  smooth  and  compact  on  top 

Back,  broad,  smooth,  slightly  arched  and  thickly  covered 

Loin,  wide,  thick  and  smooth 

Chest,  deep  and  broad 

Sides,  deep,  smooth,  thick  and  full ;  ribs  close  and  well  sprung 

Belly,  straight,  smooth  and  firm 

Flanks,  full  and  deep 

Hips,  wide  apart  and  smooth 

Rump,  long,  wide,  level  and  well  covered 

Hams,  smooth,  full,  wide,  deep  and  firm 

Legs,  short,  straight,  strong,  and  wide  apart;  pasterns  straight  and 
feet  of  medium  size 

TOTAL 


Score 


100 


332  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

REFERENCES 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  Day. 

Swine,  Dietrich. 

The  Hog  Book,  Dawson. 

Swine  in  America,  Coburn. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Plumb. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  Harper. 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry  and  Morrison. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  205.     Pig  Management. 

272.    A  Successful  Hog  and  Seed  Com  Farm. 

374.     Hog  Cholera. 

566.    Boys'  Pig  Club. 

874.     Swine  Management. 

913.     Killing  Hogs  and  Curing  Pork. 

Department  Bulletin  No.  646.  Lessons  on  Pork  Production 
for  Elementary  Rural  Schools. 


CHAPTER  XL 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


The  mountainous  area  in  the  western  states  cuts  down 
the  ratio  of  tillable  land  to  the  grazing  area,  and  indicates 
that  the  sheep  business  in  these  sections  will  continue  largely 


Figure  142. — First-prize  yearling  Shropshires. 


under  range  conditions.  The  greatest  immediate  develop- 
ment in  the  industry,  however,  seems  likely  to  be  the  estab- 
lishment and  keeping  of  small  flocks  on  the  farms. 

Care  and  Food.  Under  favorable  conditions  and  with 
good  management,  sheep  may  prove  one  of  the  most  profit- 
able animals  to  keep  on  the  ordinary  farm.  Their  care 
involves  comparatively  little  labor,  especially  during  the 
busy  summer  and  fall  months.  Few  buildings  and  little 
equipment  are  necessary  to  start  and  the  cost  of  maintaining 
a  flock  is  smaller  than  for  most  classes  of  live  stock.  A  ewe's 
fleece  is  supposed  to  pay  about  the  cost  of  her  keep  during 
the  year,  leaving  whatever  she  produces  in  lambs  and  her 
own  carcass  as  profit.  Sheep  manure  is  the  most  valuable 
farm  manure  produced  except  that  from  poultry. 

3'.i3 


334 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


No  other  class  of  farm  animals  is  equal  to  sheep  as  weed 
destroyers.  They  will  eat  practically  all  the  numerous 
weeds  that  grow  on  the  farm,  thus  keeping  down  many  waste 
places  that  would  otherwise  prove  great  nuisances  in  pro- 
ducing and  scattering  weed  seeds.  A  Kansas  farmer  was 
once  asked  what  he  did  to  keep  the  weeds  down  on  his  farm 


Figure  143. — Cotswold  ewes  on  pasture. 

and  he  replied  that  he  sold  most  of  them  as  mutton  for  five 
and  six  cents  a  pound.  In  fact,  sheep  are  such  good  weed 
destroyers  that  they  have  been  called  farm  scavengers.  For 
greatest  profit,  however,  they  can  not  be  left  to  weeds  alone 
the  whole  year. 

Breed  to  Select.  The  breed  of  sheep  to  select  for  the 
farm  flock  will  depend  upon  the  relative  market  value  of 
mutton  and  wool.  Under  normal  conditions  one  of  the 
standard  mutton  breeds  will  be  found  best  suited  to  the 
average  farm.  Breeds  of  mutton  sheep  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  (1)  medium-wool  and  (2)  long-wool  breeds.  Of 
the  medium-wool  breeds  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Cheviot, 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


335 


and  Tunis  are  in  size  smaller  than  the  Oxford  Down,  Hamp- 
shire Down,  and  Suffolk  Down.  The  long-wool  breeds  are 
all  rather  large.  They  are  the  Leicester  (pronounced  Lester) , 
the  Cotswold,  and  the  Lincoln.     The  Rambouillet  is  a  fine- 


Figure  144. — Champion  Southdown  ewe. 


wool  breed.     Choice  among  the  breeds  named  is  largely  a 
matter  of  individual  preference. 

Conformation.  No  matter  which  of  the  above  breeds 
is  selected  the  form  or  type  of  animal  will  be  much  the  same. 
It  should  be  low-set,  square  and  blocky,  straight  of  topline 
and  underline;  should  possess  vigor  and  vitality  as  indicated 
by  a  short,  broad  head,  large  nostrils,  and  a  clear  full  eye. 
It  sTiould  have  a  short,  thick  neck,  wide,  deep  chest,  broad, 
level  shoulders,  smooth  and  thickly  covered  on  top,  and  a 
muscular  forearm.      A  broad,  straight  back  with  ribs  sprung 


336 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


wide  from  the  backbone  and  thickly  covered  with  flesh,  a 
broad,  thick  loin,  a  long,  level,  broad  rump,  a  deep,  full 
twist,  and  a  heavily  muscled  leg  of  mutton  are  all  essential 
to  a  good  mutton  form.  The  legs  should  be  short  and 
straight,  with  bone  dense  and  large  though  not  to  the  point 


Figure  145. — An  aged  Shropshire  ram. 


of  coarseness.  The  flesh  should  be  firm  and  evenly  placed 
all  over  the  body;  the  skin  should  be  moist,  thin,  flexible, 
and  pink  except  in  the  dark  skinned  breeds;  the  fleece  should 
be  long,  fine,  dense  in  some  breeds,  bright,  even,  and  uniform 
of  crimp,  and  should  carry  plenty  of  yolk,  or  oil,  which  keeps 
the  wool  soft. 

Breeding.     On  the  average  farm,  grade  ewes  will  per- 
haps prove  just  as  profitable  as  pure  breds.     The  ram,  how- 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


337 


ever,  should  without  question  be  a  pure  bred,  registered 
animal  of  the  best  form  and  breeding. 

The  breeding  ram  should  have  access  to  all  the  good 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay  he  will  consume  and  enough  grain  to 
keep  him  thrifty  and  vigorous. 


H^^i^^H 

■■■■■■ 

^r    ^          ^^^iH 

^^HH^^H 

K^^^^ 

^^^^^1 

^^^^^^^^ 

^^^^^^/ 

#^9H 

^^^^^^^^^^K^m^^^^^^^^^^ 

jB 

b      m^^m 

ImJHmI 

Figure  146. — A  Cheviot  ram. 


Ewes  should  be  bred  to  lamb  any  time  after  the  middle  of 
March  depending  upon  the  severity  of  spring  weather  and 
upon  the  shelter  afforded  by  the  lambing  quarters. 

Lambing  requires  the  presence  of  the  shepherd  both  day 
and  night.  If  proper  care  has  been  given  the  flock  during 
the  winter,  the  majority  of  the  lambs  will  be  strong  and  vigor- 
ous. Occasionally  a  ewe  will  need  assistance  or  the  lamb 
may  need  to  be  helped  to  its  first  meal.  Many  lambs  have 
been  saved  by  being  held  up  long  enough  to  get  a  fill  of  warm 
milk.     As  the  lambs  come  each  ewe  and  her  lamb  should  be 

22— 


33S 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


put  by  themselves  for  a  day  or  two  to  avoid  danger  of  the 
lamb's  becoming  lost  from  its  mother  or  injured  by  the  other 
sheep.    This  can  be  done  by  either  building  in  small  per- 


Figure  147. — A  champion  Oxford  ram. 


manent  lambing  pens,  or  by  making,  in  one  end  of  the 
lambing  quarters,  temporary  stalls  of  small  hinged  hurdles. 

Spring  Care.  It  may  be  necessary  in  the  early  spring, 
while  the  ewes  are  milking  heavily  and  before  the  pasturage 
is  very  abundant,  to  give  the  ewes  a  little  grain.  The  flocks 
should  be  changed  to  a  fresh  pasture  about  once  a  month  dur- 
ing the  summer  to  prevent  their  becoming  infected  with 
stomach  worms  and  other  parasites. 

Summer  Care.  Plenty  of  good  upland  pasture  is  about 
the  only  feed  necessary  for  the  flock  during  the  summer. 
Low,  damp  pastures  or  damp  quarters  of  any  kind  are  a 
menace    to    sheep.     Since    sheep  enjoy  some  browsing,  a 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


339 


pasture  containing  some  shrubs  or  low  trees  is  so  much  the 
better.  A  pasture  should  have  at  least  enough  trees  and 
brush  to  supply  abundant  shade.  Pure,  fresh  water  and  salt 
are  necessary  in  order  that  the  flock  may  thrive.  If  pas- 
tures are  short,  they  may  be  supplemented  by  planting  small 


Figure  148. — A  Hampshire  ewe. 


areas  of  various  crops  such  as  rye,  barley,  oats  and  peas,  or 
rape  (rape  is  highly  recommended  for  this  purpose)  that  the 
sheep  may  pasture  off. 

Feeding  Lambs.  At  the  age  of  one  or  two  weeks  the 
lambs  will  begin  nibbling  at  their  mother's  feed.  Now  is  a 
good  time  to  provide  a  little  extra  grain  for  them  where  the 
ewes  cannot  get  at  it.  This  is  conveniently  done  by  making 
a  lamb  creep  in  one  corner  of  the  barn.  This  consists  of  a 
slat  fence  with  the  slats  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  lambs 
to  pass  between  and  yet  close  enough  to  keep  out  the  ewes. 


340  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

A  trough  in  which  grain  is  kept  is  placed  behind  the  creep. 
One  of  the  most  satisfactory  grain  mixtures  for  lambs,  under 
western  conditions,  is  composed  of  one  or  two  parts  of  bran 
to  one  part  of  oats,  crushed  oats  preferred.  A  little  finely- 
ground  com  or  barley  meal  may  be  added  occasionally  for 


Figure  149. — Leicester  yearling  ewe. 

variety.     A  few  roots,  if  they  can  be  kept  this  late,  are 
relished  by  the  lambs. 

Winter  Care.  While  elaborate  and  costly  buildings  are 
not  necessary  for  sheep,  provision  should  be  made  to  keep 
them  dry  above  and  under  foot,  and  to  prevent  their 
lying  in  draughts.  Warm  quarters,  however,  are  not  neces- 
sary, as  the  sheep's  coat  is  ample  protection  against  cold. 
Plenty  of  room  in  which  to  exercise  should  be  provided  for 
the  flock  and  the  quarters  should  admit  as  much  sunshine, 
light,  and  fresh  air  as  possible.     A  good  deep  shed,  open  to 


SHEEP  MANAGE3IENT 


341 


the  south,  built  on  a  well  drained  spot,  is  about  as  profitable 
a  building  as  can  be  made  for  wintering  the  flock. 

Care  of  Ewes.     If  good  alfalfa  hay  is  available,   little 
else  need  be  fed  to  the  breeding  flock  except  that  during  the 


Figure  150. — A  typical  Lincoln  ewe. 


winter  a  few  roots  make  a  valuable  addition  to  the  ration. 
This  statement  may  seem  strange,  but  the  flock  of  breeding 
ewes  at  the  Utah  Agricultural  College  repeatedly  winters 
on  nothing  but  alfalfa  with  sometimes  the  addition  of  a  few 
roots,  and  comes  out  in  good  condition  in  the  spring.  Wild 
and  timothy  hays  have  no  place  in  sheep  feeding.  If  some 
of  the  ewes  are  thin  as  they  approach  the  time  of  lambing, 
it  is  well  to  give  them  a  small  allowance  of  grain.  A  mixture 
of  oats  and  bran  is  as  good  as  anything. 

Shearing  should  be  done  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  warm 
weather  sets  in.     This  time  will  usually  be  long  enough  after 


342 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


lambing  to  avoid  harm  either  to  the  ewe  or  the  lamb.  If 
postponed  till  the  weather  gets  hot,  the  sheep  become  very 
uncomfortable  in  their  warm  coats  and  lose  flesh  rapidly. 
Dipping  sheep  is  found  to  be  beneficial  from  two  stand- 
points; first,  it  destroys  lice,  ticks,  scab,  and  other  parasites 


Figure  151. — A  good  specimen  of  the  Rambouillet. 


which  worry  sheep,  and  cause  much  waste  in  lack  of  growth; 
and,  second,  it  promotes  the  health  of  the  skin  and  furthers 
the  growth  of  wool.  To  kill  parasites,  dipping  carefully 
once  a  year  is  sufficient,  but  some  flocks  are  dipped  twice  a 
year  for  the  benefit  of  the  wool. 

The  best  time  to  dip  is  shortly  after  shearing.  The  wool 
is  then  short  and  consequently  less  dip  is  necessary.  The 
dip  is  surer  to  get  down  to  the  skin,  and  less  time  is  required 
for  the  sheep  to  drain  and  dry ,  lessening  the  danger  from  colds. 


SHEEP  MANAGEMENT 


343 


Dipping  should  be  done  in  the  forenoon  of  a  warm  sunny- 
day,  thus  allowing  time  for  the  fleeces  to  dry  out  before  night. 
The  dip  should  be  warm  (about  95  degrees  F.)  in  order  that 
it  may  penetrate  the  wool  well  and  not  chill  the  sheep.  The 
sheep  should  be  wet 
all  over  at  least  once 
and  be  kept  in  the 
dip  about  two 
minutes. 

There  are  several 
kinds  of  dips  that 
may  be  used  success- 
fully. Chief  among 
these  are  lime  and 
sulphur,  tobacco 
dips  and  coal  tar  dips. 

Dipping  Plant.  The  kind  and  size  of  dipping  plant  will 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  flock.  If  space  and  money  per- 
mit and  the  size  of  the  flock  justifies  it,  a  permanent  plant 
may  be  put  in,  consisting  of  corrals,  a  chute,  a  concrete  vat 
about  30  feet  long  heated  by  steam  coils,  and  a  draining  pen 
arranged  to  return  the  dip  to  the  vat  as  it  runs  off  the  sheep. 
A  cheaper  plant  that  is  used  successfully  on  many  farms, 
though  less  convenient  than  the  one  mentioned  above,  con- 
sists of  a  corral  made  of  hurdles,  a  plank  walk  leading  to  the 
vat,  a  galvanized  iron  vat,  and  a  draining  pen.  All  except 
the  draining  pen  may  be  made  movable,  allowing  them  to 
be  put  out  of  the  way  when  not  in  use. 


Figure  152. — Movable  pen  made  of  hurdles  used  in 
connection  with  dipping  plant. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  three  points  in  favor  of  keeping  sheep  on  the  farm. 

2.  What  factors  will  govern  the  selection  of  the  breed  of  sheep  to 

keep  on  the  farm? 

3.  Describe  in  some  detail  mutton  form  in  sheep. 

4.  What  care  should  be  given  the  breeding  ram? 

5.  What  special  care  is  necessary  at  lambing  time? 


344  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

6.  How  can  lambs  be  given  grain  when  the  ewes  are  not  being  grain 

fed?     Why  should  this  be  done? 

7.  Outline  a  winter  ration  for  breeding  ewes. 

8.  Of  what  value  is  dipping  sheep? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  If  near  a  shearing  corral,  weigh  individual  fleeces  as  they  come 
from  the  shearer.  Note  age  and  breed  of  sheep  and  date  of  last 
shearing.  Measure  the  length  of  the  wool,  and  observe  its 
fineness,  strength,  quality  and  amount  of  dirt  and  grease. 

REFERENCES 

Sheep  Farming,  Craig. 

Sheep  in  America,  Wing. 

Sheep  Management,  Kleinheinz. 

Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges,  Barnes. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Plumb. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  Harper. 

Modern  Sheep,  The  Shepherd  Boy. 

The  Breeds  of  Live  Stock,  Gay. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  Plumb. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  III. 

Sheep  Managenr  ent,  Doane. 

Farmers'  Bulletms: 

No.  576.     Breeds  of  Sheep  for  the  Farm. 

652.     The  Sheep  Industry  as  Menaced  by  the  Dog. 

713.     Sheep  Scab. 

718.     Co-operative  Live  Stock  Shipping  Associations. 

720.     Prevention  of  Losses  of  Live  Stock  from  Plant  Poi- 
soning. 

798.    The  Sheep  Tick. 

810.     Equipment  for  Farm  Sheep  Raising. 

840.     Farm  Sheep  Raising  for  Beginners. 


CHAPTER  XLI 

POULTRY 

The  poultry  industry  of  the  United  States  has  increased 
enormously  in  the  past  ten  years,  yet  the  price  of  eggs  and  of 
market  fowls  has  nearly  doubled  during  this  time.  The 
present  value  of  this  product  exceeds  that  of  many  of  the 
other  farm  crops.  The  size  of  the  flocks  varies  from  half  a 
dozen  hens,  kept  in  a  back  yard  or  city  lot,  to  twenty  or 
twenty-five  thousand  hens  on  some  of  the  large  commercial 
farms,  the  average  Utah  flock  being  only  forty  hens.  Poul- 
try production  may  be  in  combination  with  various  other 
crops  or  it  may  be  special  business.  As  a  rule  the  fowls  are 
most  profitable  when  kept  in  small  flocks  on  the  general 
farm.  The  commercial  poultry  man  produces  only  about 
ten  per  cent  of  the  output  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  poultry  business  it  is  a  good  plan  to  start  with  a 
small  number;  perhaps  in  the  spring  a  setting  of  eggs,  or  a 
dozen  baby  chicks;  or  starting  in  the  fall,  with  pullets  or 
older  hens,  would  be  best  for  one  who  has  had  but  little 
experience.  Some  knowledge  of  their  care  may  be  gained 
before  the  hatching  and  rearing  season  is  on. 

Little  time  is  lost  before  the  eggs  or  meat  is  ready  for 
market.  Very  quick  returns  are  received  from  the  money 
invested.  Many  cases  might  be  cited  where  the  net  value 
of  the  eggs  produced  by  a  flock  of  fowls  by  the  time  they 
were  one  year  old  was  more  than  the  entire  cost  of  feed  and 
house  and  original  cost  of  the  fowls  themselves. 

Choice  of  Breeds.  There  is  considerably  more  satisfac- 
tion and  greater  opportunities  in  breeding  pure-bred  fowls 
than  the  ordinary  mongrel  stock.  It  makes  little  difference 
which  of  the  popular  breeds  a  person  selects,  provided  that 

345 


34t) 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  153. — Single-comb  White  Leghorns. 

the  fowls  are  hardy,  from  a  good  strain  and  adapted  to  the 
condition  and  purpose  for  which  they  are  kept.  It  could 
not  be  regarded  as  good  judgment  to  start  a  flock,  the  special 
object  being  to  produce  soft  roasters,  with  one  of  the  small 
nervous  and  very  active  breeds;  nor  in  the  egg  business,  with 
the  very  large  clumsy  slow-maturing  breeds.  For  conven- 
ience, the  different  breeds  are  grouped  into  (1)  egg  breeds, 
(2)  meat  breeds,  (3)  general-purpose  breeds,  and   (4)  fancy 


Figure  154. — Light  Brahmas. 


POULTRY 


347 


Figure  155. — White  Plymouth  Rocks. 

breeds.  No  two  breeds  have  the  same  characteristics,  but 
there  is  a  general  blending  of  these  useful  qualities  from  one 
extreme  to  the  other. 

The  Egg  Breeds.  This  group  includes  all  the  small, 
nervous,  active,  less  reliable  sitting  breeds  that  usually  do 
not  take  on  flesh  readily  and  are  rather  hard  to  confine. 


Figure  156. — Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 


348 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  157. — White  Wyandottea 

Too  often,  when  supplied  with  a  setting  of  good  eggs,  they 
leave  the  nest  before  time  for  the  chicks  to  hatch,  or  make 
very  poor  mothers  after  the  chicks  are  hatched.  They  are 
excellent  foragers  and  will  range  over  considerable  territory 
if  given  the  opportunity  to  do  so,  yet  will  do  fairly  well  in 
close  confinement.  They  are  usually  hardy  and  develop 
very  rapidly.  Pullets  often  begin  laying  when  only  four 
and  a  half  or  five  months  old.     The  Leghorn,  Minorca, 


Figure  158.— Silver  Wyandottea. 


POULTRY 


349 


Figure  159. — Single-comb  Rhode  Island  Reds. 

Hamburg,  Spanish,  Ancona  and  Andalusian  are  the  most 
common  fowls  of  this  group.  Of  the  many  varieties  of  these 
breeds  the  Single-comb  White  Leghorn  is  the  most  popular 
especially  on  the  large  commercial  egg  farms. 

The  meat  breeds  are  large,  awkward  in  their  movements, 
sluggish,  easily  confined,  persistent  sitters,  and  poor  for- 
agers. They  are  gentle,  easily  handled,  and  take  on  flesh 
readily,  yet  mature  rather  slowly.      One  of  the  problems  in 


Figure  160. — White  Orpingtons 


350  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

the  management  of  these  fowls  is  to  keep  them  from  getting 
too  fat  for  good  egg  production.  They  are  of  Asiatic  origin 
and  have  feathered  legs. 

The  Brahma  is  the  largest  and  most  popular  breed  of  this 
group.     Since  Cochins  are  usually  weak  and  of  low  vitality 


Figure  161. — The  hen  is  an  efficient  machine  for  transforming  raw  food  into  a  very 
highly  nutritious  product. 

and  have  little  economic  value,  the  Langshan  is  the  only 
other  breed  of  this  group  that  is  usually  regarded  as  having 
much  utility  value. 

The  General-Purpose  Breeds.  In  America  and  England 
these  two  extremes  have  been  brought  together,  and  through 
crossbreeding  and  careful  selection  a  number  of  breeds  have 
been  developed,  having  many  of  the  desirable  characters  of 
each.  The  general-purpose  fowls  are  gentle  when  properly 
handled,  make  good  sitters,  excellent  mothers,  and  good 
foragers,  and  yet  are  easily  confined.  When  skillfully  man- 
aged they  lay  well  or  will  take  on  flesh  readily.  Of  the 
American  breeds,  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  are  the  best  farm  fowls.  The  most 
popular  English  breed  of  this  group  is  the  Orpington. 

The  Fancy  Breeds.  In  this  group  are  classed  those  fowls 
having  Httle  or  no  utility  value,  such  as  the  Games  and  Ban- 


POULTRY 


351 


Figure  162. — Showing  the  framework  of  a 
movable  gable-roof  colony  house.  This 
type  of  house  is  not  as  easy  to  ventilate  as 
the  shed-roof  house. 


tarns  and  many  other 
fowls  known  for  some 
peculiarity. 

Location  and  Housing. 
A  dry,  well-drained  sandy 
or  clay  loam  with  a  south 
exposure  is  best  for  the 
location  of  the  poultry 
house.  This  soil  warms 
up  early  in  the  spring, 
produces  an  early  supply 
of  green  food  for  the  fowls,  and  does  away  with  the  necessity 
of  floors  in  the  houses.  Wet  or  damp  conditions  within  the 
house  not  only  greatly  reduce  the  disease-resisting  power  of 
the  fowls  and  afford  a  favorable  environment  for  some  of 
the  worst  diseases  and  enemies;  but  a  large  percentage  of 
the  eggs  produced  are  smeared  with  filth  from  the  feet  of 
the  hens. 

An  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air  without  draughts  is 
very  important;  yet  the  house  must  afford  protection  from 
the  severe  freezing  weather.  Cold,  pure  air  is  better  than 
warm,  impure  air;  yet  it  is  the  fresh  air  and  not  the  low  tem- 
perature that  is  desired.  The  shed-roof  house  with  the  open 
or  curtain  front  is  most  common.  With  this  type  of  house  the 
other  three  sides  must  be  tight  during  cold  weather  to  pre- 
vent draughts.  A  curtain  of  thin  muslin  is  commonly  used 
to  cover  the  opening  during 
the  cold  nights.  This  is  raised 
during  the  day  to  admit  the 
rays  of  the  sun  which  aid  great- 
ly in  keeping  the  interior  dry. 

Feeds  and  Feeding.  When 
properly  managed  there  is  lit- 
tle or  no  danger  of  overfeeding    Figure  les.— The  shed-roof  house  with 
the  laying  hen.     Lack  of  the      ^XunTgh?""^"  "'"^  '''*''''"" 


352 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


CROSS- 3£CT/Of^. 


f'  _»t, 4-'  ^^rcparet^  roof//r^ 


I  I  Ijj  ^Summer  %venf//aMr5  \\r Rafters -—^ 


C — //jr;er-///tin^  of  matc/red  So^refs 

abok^e  a/}df  af-  fhe  back  of  perches 


DSTA/LS  of  OfSr-BOX  UETAILS  of  r/£STS 

FiguH'  1G4. — Showing  in  detail  the  interior  of  a  well<arranged  poultry  hou«e. 


POULTRY 


353 


proper  amount  and  variety  of  feed  shows  first  in  decreased 
egg  production.  If  only  sufficient  feed  is  given  to  maintain 
the  body  functions,  there  will  be  no  eggs  produced.  The 
number  of  eggs  laid  is  often  determined  by  the  amount  and 
kind  of  food  available.     When  fed  correctly,  all  food  above 


Figure  IGj. — Poultry  colony  house 

the  amount  required  to  keep  up  the  body  is  manufactured 
into  eggs  with  no  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  fowl. 

Fowls  running  on  the  farm  with  little  or  no  attention  will 
lay  a  large  number  of  eggs  during  the  spring  months.  The 
feeds  of  this  season  indicates  in  a  general  way  what  is  neces- 
sary for  egg  production.  The  industrious  hen  will  find  seeds 
of  all  kinds  in  various  stages  of  sprouting,  also  insects  and 
worms,  and  young  tender  grasses  and  roots.  During  the 
fall  and  winter  a  good  ration  would  contain  a  scratching 
feed  and  mash  as  follows: 
Scratching  Feed  Mash 

Wheat  60  parts        Bran  100  parts  Chopped  barley  50  parts 

Corn  20  parts  Shorts  100  parts  Chopped  alfalfa  10  parts 

Oats  10  parts  Chopped  corn  50  parts    Beef  scraps  50  parts 

Whole  grains  should  be  scattered  in  a  deep  htter  of  straw, 
morning  and  night.  Dry  mash  should  be  kept  in  the  hoppers 
at  all  times,  and  a  feed  of  mash  moistened  with  buttermilk 

23— 


354  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

fed  at  noon.  Fresh  water,  crushed  oyster-shell,  coarse  sand 
and  sugar  beets,  or  other  succulent  feeds,  ought  to  be  avail- 
able at  all  times.  A  limited  amount  of  ground  green-bone 
fed  three  or  four  times  a  week  will  increase  the  amount  of 
protein.  Since  this  food  spoils  readily  in  warm  weather,  it 
is  used  only  during  the  winter. 

There  is  a  very  high  percentage  of  protein  in  eggs.  A 
hen  in  heavy  laying  condition  is  not  able  to  use  the  vegetable 
protein  as  an  entire  source  of  supply  for  this  part  of  the  egg. 
Some  animal  food,  such  as  insects,  skimmed  milk,  butter- 
milk, or  meat  scraps,  to  supply  this,  must  be  included  as  a 
part  of  the  ration. 

Green  and  succulent  feeds,  such  as  alfalfa  chopped  fine 
or  ground,  are  very  good.  Clover  or  any  of  the  legumes 
are  good  if  not  too  old  and  woody.  Sugar  beets  and  mangel 
wurzels  are  the  best  of  the  root  crops  for  winter  feeding. 
The  whole  beet  may  be  hung  on  a  nail  to  allow  the  fowls  to 
pick  at  it  and  eat  as  they  choose,  or  it  may  be  chopped  fine 
and  fed  in  the  mash.  Stimulants,  such  as  peppers,  mustard, 
etc.,  are  good  to  tone  up  the  digestive  system  when  the  fowls 
are  run  down,  or  weakened,  but  there  is  great  danger  in 
their  continued  or  excessive  feeding. 

Incubation  and  Brooding.  Eggs,  when  laid  by  good 
vigorous  hens  running  with  a  good  cock,  furnish  all  that  is 
necessary  for  a  young  chick,  except  the  proper  temperature. 
The  application  of  this  heat  under  favorable  conditions  is 
commonly  called  incubation.  There  are  two  ways  of  hatch- 
ing chicks, — by  the  natural  process  with  the  broody  hen  or 
artificially  with  an  incubator.  In  either  case  success  depends 
on  the  vitality  and  constitutional  vigor  of  breeding  fowls, 
together  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  eggs  are  kept 
and  the  process  of  incubation.  Eggs  for  hatching  should 
be  kept  in  a  clean  place  where  the  temperature  does  not  go 
above  60  degrees  or  below  40  degrees  and  should  not  be  more 
than  ten  or  twelve  days  okl. 


POULTRY  355 

Natural  Incubation.  The  selection  of  the  hen  and  the 
construction  of  the  nest  are  the  most  important  factors  in 
natural  incubation.  A  hen  from  one  of  the  general  purpose 
breeds,  in  a  quiet  secluded  nest  away  from  the  other  fowls, 
and  dusted  thoroughly  with  a  good  lice  powder,  will  do  well. 
Make  a  good  roomy  nest  in  the  place  selected.  Move  the 
broody  hen  to  this  nest  at  night.  China  eggs  or  unhatched 
eggs  of  other  hens  can  be  used  for  two  or  three  days  to  see  if 
she  will  accept  the  nest  made  for  her.  If  she  does,  fresh 
eggs  may  be  put  under  her.  Whole  wheat  and  corn,  fresh 
water,  and  grit,  comprise  a  good  daily  ration.  If  the  nest 
is  made  in  a  box  or  up  off  the  ground,  four  or  five  inches  of 
damp  soil  or  an  inverted  sod  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom 
and  the  nest  material  on  top  of  this  so  as  to  prevent  too  much 
evaporation  from  the  eggs.  If  three  or  four  hens  are  set 
at  the  same  time,  the  eggs  may  be  tested  by  holding  them 
before  a  strong  light  on  the  sixth  or  seventh  day  and 
enough  infertile  eggs  taken  out  to  permit  one  hen  to  be 
reset  on  fresh  eggs. 

Artificial  Incubation.  The  incubator  has  made  possible 
the  large  central  hatcheiy  and  the  large  commercial  poultry 
farms.  A  good  incubator  requires  little  time  and  attention 
to  operate  it.  When  once  set  and  adjusted  it  regulates  itself. 
There  are,  however,  poor  incubators  manufactured  that 
require  almost  constant  attention  and  are  often  a  failure. 
The  regulation  of  the  heat  and  the  control  of  the  ventilation 
and  moisture  supply  are  the  important  functions  of  a  good 
machine.  There  are  two  systems  of  heating,  hot  air  and  hot 
water.  There  are  good  and  bad  machines  of  both  kinds. 
Each  system  has  its  advocates  and  some  companies  make 
both  machines,  that  the  operators  may  have  a  choice.  In 
general,  the  best  plan  is  to  follow 'in  detail  the  instructions 
of  the  manufacturers.  For  the  climatic  conditions  of  Utah 
more  moisture  and  less  ventilation  than  in  the  more  humid 
sections  give  better  results. 


356  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

Artificial  Brooding,  A  good  brooder  is  simple  in  con- 
struction and  easily  operated-  AH  parts  of  the  brooder 
should  be  easy  to  clean  and  should  have  no  dark  corners. 
A  fireless  brooder,  when  well-made  and  properly  managed, 
gives  good  results  under  dry  conditions.  Freedom  from 
moisture  in  the  brooder  is  very  essential  to  the  successful 
rearing  of  chicks.  Plenty  of  clean  chopped  straw,  chaff,  or 
other  absorbent  litter  is  needed  in  the  brooder. 

Chicks  ought  not  to  be  fed  until  they  are  about  forty- 
eight  hours  old.  The  first  feed  should  be  easily  seen  and 
nutritious.  Bread  and  milk,  hard-boiled  eggs,  bran,  chopped 
wheat  and  corn,  rolled  oats  with  hulls  removed,  grit  and 
lawn  clippings  or  chopped  alfalfa  are  all  good.  Feed  often 
but  sparingly  the  first  few  days.  Mushy  or  wet  feeds  are 
undesirable,  while  an  abundance  of  fresh  water  is  essential. 
As  much  free,  shady  range  as  possible  is  advantageous. 

Marketing.  The  annual  loss  in  the  handling  and  market- 
ing of  eggs  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  $45,000,000, 
much  of  which  is  due  to  poor  methods  used  on  the  farm. 
One  third  of  this  loss  is  due  directly  to  germ  development 
called  blood  rings  or  heated  eggs.  This  may  be  overcome  by 
removing  the  male  birds  from  the  flock  as  soon  as  the  hatch- 
ing season  is  over,  thus  producing  infertile  eggs.  Eggs  should 
be  gathered  twice  daily  during  the  summer,  put  in  a  cool 
dry  place,  and  marketed  at  least  once  a  week.  Small, 
cracked,  or  soiled  eggs  may  be  used  at  home  while  fresh. 
Grading  the  eggs  into  lots  of  uniform  size,  color,  and  shape 
will  increase  their  value  in  the  market. 

The  method  of  killing  and  dressing  has  much  to  do  with 
the  price  and  keeping  qualities  of  fowls.  They  should  not 
have  feed  of  any  kind  fo.r  twenty-four  hours  l^efore  they  are 
killed.  All  fowls  should  be  marketed  undrawn  unless  the 
market  demands  drawn  fowls.  They  should  be  bled  by 
cutting  the  arteries  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,' well  back 
in  the  throat,  and  then  brained  with  the  same  knife  by  run- 


POULTRY  357 

ning  it  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth  on  the  median  Hnes 
just  back  of  the  eyes.  If  the  feathers  are  then  plucked 
immediately  they  will  come  out  easily  without  tearing  the 
skin.  Fowls  thus  killed  and  dressed,  and  packed  dry  without 
washing,  after  being  thoroughly  cooled,  will  reach  the  mar- 
ket in  better  condition  and  keep  longer  than  those  that  have 
been  drawn,  scalded,  and  washed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  climate  affect  the  cost  of  producing  poultry  prod- 

ucts? 

2.  What  is  the  best  method  of  starting  a  flock? 

3.  What  branches  of  the  poultry  business  offer  the  best  opportunities 

in  your  section? 

4.  What  are  the  advantages  of  raising  pure-bred  rather  than  mongrel 

fowls? 

5.  Name  the  four  economic  groups  into  which  the  different  breeds  are 

arranged  and  give  the  general  characteristics  of  each  group. 

6.  Name  the  most  important  breeds  in  each  group. 

7.  Name  and  discuss  four  important  factors  in  the  selection  of  eggs 

for  hatching. 

8.  What  breeds  of  chickens  are  best  to  use  for  sitting? 

9.  When  and  why  should  the  egg  being  incubated  be  tested? 

10.  What  are  the  important  factors  to  consider  in   feeding  baby 

chicks? 

11.  Why  is  grit  necessary?     What  kind  of  grit  is  best  for  laying  hens? 

For  baby  chicks? 

12.  Why  is  a  variety  of  feeds  best  for  chickens? 

13.  What  are  the  causes  of  the  great  loss  in  marketing  eggs? 

14.  How  can  most  of  this  loss  be  prevented? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Making  an  Egg  Tester:  Take  a  shoe  box  or  some  other  cardboard 
box  about  that  size.  Cut  a  round  hole  in  the  center  of  the  lid 
or  top  about  1  }4  inches  in  diameter.  In  one  end  of  the  box  cut 
a  narrow  slit  in  the  center  from  the  top  down  two  inches.  Pass 
an  electric  light  cord  through  this  slit,  globe  inside;  turn  on 
light;  put  on  lid  and  tie  a  string  around  to  hold  it  on.  The 
globe  should  hang  inside  just  opposite  hole  in  lid.     Pull  down 


358  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

the  window  shades  and  hold  an  egg — large  end  up — in  the  hole 
in  the  lid  so  the  light  will  shine  through  it.  Turn  egg  back 
and  forth  on  long  axis.  Does  the  yolk  turn  with  the  shell  or 
remain  somewhat  stationary? 

2.  Testing  Eggs:     Get  at  least  a  dozen  eggs — some  fresh,  others  two, 

six  and  several  days  old;  or,  better,  get  part  of  them  from  under 
a  broody  hen  or  from  an  incubator  where  they  have  been  in- 
cubated about  six  to  eight  days.  Note  first  a  fresh  egg,  both 
brown  and  white-shelled  eggs  where  possible.  Can  you  see 
the  air  cell?  How  large  is  it?  Note  the  difference  in  size 
of  air  cell  in  fresh  eggs  and  the  other  eggs.  If  eggs  have  been 
incubated,  can  you  see  the  developing  chick?  Are  any  of  the 
incubated  eggs  clear,  similar  to  the  fresh  egg,  except  for  slightly 
larger  air  cell?     If  so,  they  are  infertile. 

3.  Visit  a  poultry  farm  having  pure-bred  chickens.     Study  the  color, 

shape,  and  markings  of  the  chickens.  Learn  to  know  them  by 
sight.     Are  the  hens,  pullets,  and  roosters  the  same  color? 

4.  Collect  pictures  of  the  common  poultry  breeds. 

REFERENCES 

Poultry  Production,  Lippincott. 
Productive  Poultry  Husbandry,  Lewis. 
Diseases  of  Poultry,  Pearl,  Surface  and  Curtis. 
Progressive  Poultry  Culture,  Brigham. 
American  Standard  of  Perfection. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 


No.  335. 

A  Successful  Poultry  and  Dairy  Farm. 

528. 

Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers. 

530. 

Important  Poultry  Diseases. 

574. 

Poultry  House  Construction. 

697. 

Duck  Raising. 

767. 

Goose  Raising. 

791. 

Turkey  Raising. 

801. 

Mites  and  Lice  on  Poultry. 

806. 

Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

1.     The  American  Class. 

830. 

Marketing  Eggs  by  Parcels  Post. 

698 

Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens. 

II      Mediterranean  and  Continental  Classes. 

889. 

Back-yard  Poultry  Keeping. 

CHAPTER  XLII 
THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 

The  function  of  all  farm  animals  is  to  utilize  the  rough 
food  material  that  people  cannot  eat,  and  to  change  it  into 
something  useful  to  mankind,  as,  for  example,  the  work  of 
the  horse,  the  meat  and  wool  of  the  sheep,  the  meat  of  the 
beef  animal,  and  the  milk  of  the  dairy  cow.  When  we  con- 
sider that  all  these  products,  which  are  so  necessary  to  man- 
kind, are  made  chiefly  from  the  coarse  feeds,  worthless  for 
human  food,  we  begin  to  appreciate  how  important  our  ani- 
mal friends  are  as  factories  to  concentrate  low-grade  materi- 
als. Whatever  animals  produce  must  come  from  the  feed 
they  eat. 

Classes  of  Food.  For  the  best  results  with  any  of  our 
farm  animals  great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  kind  and 
amount  of  feed  we  give  them.  All  feeds  are  made  up  of 
groups  of  substances  which  differ  from  one  another  in  certain 
ways;  yet  each  group  is  the  same  no  matter  in  which  feed  it 
is  found,  whether  in  hay,  grain,  grass,  carrots,  beets,  or  any 
other  feed. 

Water  and  Dry  Matter.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of 
water  in  all  feeds.  This  varies  from  sixty-five  to  ninety  per 
cent  in  roots,  pasture  grasses,  green  alfalfa,  and  other  green 
hays  and  fodders,  to  as  low  as  seven  to  twelve  per  cent  in  the 
different  grains,  dry  hays,  fodders  and  straws.  The  first 
division,  then,  is  the  separation  of  the  water  and  dry  matter 
of  feeds. 

Protein.  The  dry  matter  may  be  classified  into  four 
groups  known  as  food  nutrients :  (1)  Proteins,  (2)  carbohy- 
drates, (3)  fats,  and  (4)  ash.  Protein  differs  from  all  the 
others  by  containing  the   chemical  element,   nitrogen,   in 


360 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


addition  to  caribou,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  some  others. 
Lean  meat,  the  white  of  eggs,  and  the  curd  of  cheese  are  pro- 
tein foods  for  mankind.  Such  feeds  as  alfalfa  and  clover 
hays,  peas,  bran,  and  oats,  contain  a  relatively  higher  pro- 
portion of  protein  than  wild  and  timothy  hays,  straw,  corn 
fodder,  corn,  barley,  and  wheat. 

Carbohydrates  occur  in  feeds  in  a  variety  of  forms.    The 
various  sugars  and  starches  are  examples  of  pure  carbohy- 


Corn 
O/rrs 

V/HEPiT 

Shorts 

[BteT  Kout^bbts  [ 
Alfrlfr  Hrm 

CORhStOvER 

Brru^xStrbw  [ 
Wrienr^TRRw  [ 
Corn  Silrg-e 

SuGRR  BEETS 
CRRR0T6 
MRNGELS 
1uRM\PS 

Beet  R>\.p  tw^> 


C  AAeonxoRRTf:^    ^^S  rm& 


Figure  166. — Digeutible  nuthentd  of  some  common  western  feeds  in  per  cents. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS  361 

drates,  and  the  coarse  woody  parts  of  plants  are  composed 
largely  of  a  mixture  of  other  carbohydrates.  Only  three 
chemical  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  enter  into 
their  structure.  Carbohydrates  are  used  in  the  body  to 
produce  fat,  heat,  and  energy  to  be  used  by  the  body 
processes  or  in  work.  Xhey  enter  very  little  into  the  build- 
ing or  repair  of  the  body. 

As  examples  of  carbohydrate  feeds  may  be  mentioned  the 
grasses,  grass  hay,  straw,  corn  fodder,  rye,  barley  and  corn. 

Fats.  The  same  chemical  elements  are  found  in  fats  as 
compose  carbohydrates  and  they  are  used  in  the  body  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  elements,  however,  occur  in  such  dif- 
ferent proportions  that  fats  are  worth  to  the  animal  about 
2.25  times  as  much  as  carbohydrates. 

Ash.  When  any  plant  or  animal  matter  is  burned,  there 
is  left  behind  an  ash,  composed  of  various  inorganic,  or 
mineral  elements,  which  were  a  part  of  the  original  tissue. 
This  ash,  or  mineral  matter,  occurs  in  very  small  amounts 
in  feeding  material.  It  is,  however,  very  important  in  feed- 
ing of  animals.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  construction  of  the 
bones,  though  each  cell  and  fluid  of  the  body  must  be  sup- 
plied with  a  small  amount  of  ash  or  disturbances  set  in  which 
may  cause  death. 

Digestibility.  Some  of  the  nutrients  are  so  firmly  locked 
up  in  the  coarse,  woody  portions  of  the  plant  that  they 
escape  the  dissolving  action  of  the  various  digestive  juices. 
Only  the  dissolved  portions  of  the  feeds  are  of  any  use  to 
the  animal,  the  others  passing  unused  out  of  the  body. 

Many  factors  affect  the  proportion  of  each  nutrient 
-digested,  the  two  chief  ones  being  the  kind  and  condition  of 
the  feed  and  the  kind  of  animal  fed.  Hays  and  fodders  are 
less  completely  digested  than  grains  and  other  concentrated 
feeds.  Horses  and  hogs  usually  digest  less  of  the  nutrients 
of  any  given  feed  than  do  cattle  and  sheep,  especially  of  the 
coarser  feeds. 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  167. — Stacking  alfalfa  hay  for  feed. 


A  Good  Ration.  It  is  the  business  of  the  good  feeder  to 
supply  that  ration  which  will  produce  the  greatest  quantity 
of  a  high  grade  product  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  cost 
of  the  ration  as  low  as  possible.  To  do  this  best  requires 
great  skill  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  animal  life  and  plant 
composition.      No   amount  of   theory,  however,  can  take 

the  place  of  intelli- 
gent observation  in 
the  barn  and  stable. 
The  two  must  go 
hand  in  hand  for 
best  results. 

A  Liberal  Ration. 
A  ration  should  be 
liberal;  that  is,  it 
should  contain  suffi- 
cient total  feed  for 
the  requirements  of  the  animal.  The  first  use  food  is  put  to 
by  the  animal  is  to  keep  its  own  body  alive  and  in  normal 
working  condition.  If  anything  is  expected  of  the  animal  in 
addition  to  this,  in  the  nature  of  work,  meat,  wool,  milk,  or 
eggs,  additional  feed  must  be  given. 

In  order,  then,  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  the 
ration  must  be  liberal  enough  to  keep  up  the  animal  body 
and  also  supply  material  for  the  animal  to  manufacture  the 
product  for  which  it  is  kept. 

A  Balanced  Ration.  A  ration  must  contain  a  certain 
amount  of  protein,  or  muscle-building  material,  in  a  proper 
proportion  to  carbohydrates  and  fats,  or,  in  other  words,  it 
must  be  balanced.  Protein  is  essential  to  the  life  of  all 
animals.  It  is  necessary  in  the  repair  and  growth  of  all  lean 
meat,  tissues,  and  the  blood,  and  in  the  production  of  milk, 
eggs  and  other  animal  products.  Even  with  an  abundant 
supply  of  the  other  food  nutrients — carbohydrates,  fat,  and 
ash — the  animal  will  die  without  protein.    The  amount  of 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS  363 

protein  necessary  for  best  results  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
protein,  the  kind  of  animal  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
fed.  Chickens  require  a  higher  proportion  of  protein  than 
most  other  classes  of  animals;  a  growing  calf  requires  more 
protein  in  proportion  to  size  than  a  fattening  steer. 

Adaptation  to  the  Animal.  The  ration  must  be  adapted 
to  the  kind  of  animal  fed.  For  example,  chickens  cannot  be 
fed  entirely  upon  coarse  hays  and  fodders,  while  such  is  pos- 
sible with  cattle  and  horses  under  certain  conditions.  A 
successful  hog  ration  is  not  a  profitable  one  to  feed  horses. 

Palatability.  A  ration  for  best  results  must  be  palatable. 
An  animal  must  be  induced  to  consume  large  amounts  of 
feed  in  order  that  the  product  may  be  correspondingly  great. 
To  encourage  this  large  consumption,  the  feeds  must  be  of 
the  kind  and  in  a  condition  which  will  appeal  to  the  appetite  of 
the  animal.  Coarse,  tasteless  feeds  cannot  be  used  entirely 
when  feeding  for  the  highest  production.  A  variety  of  feeds 
is  usually  the  best  means  of  stimulating  the  appetite. 

Quality  of  Product.  A  ration  should  also  be  made  up 
with  reference  to  the  quality  of  the  product.  The  influence 
of  feed  upon  the  composition  of  lean  meat  is  not  very  well 
understood.  It  is  well-known,  however,  that  certain  feeds 
influence  the  flavor  of  milk  and  the  flavor  and  composition  of 
butter.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  wild  garlic,  pars- 
nips, and  potatoes.  Leaner  pork  is  continually  being  called 
for,  and  of  course  it  will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  feeder  to 
keep  this  in  mind  and  feed  to  produce  the  grade  of  prod- 
uct most  in  demand.  Many  experiments  have  shown  that 
feed  may  influence  the  quality  of  pork.  Corn,  when  fed  in 
excess,  produces  a  soft,  low  grade  of  pork;  wheat  middlings, 
beans,  peanuts,  and  acorns,  when  fed  in  large  quantities, 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  an  oily  pork.  Field  peas  seem 
to  produce  pork  too  dry  to  be  first-grade. 

Economy  of  Ration  Used.  A  ration  should  be  economical. 
After  all,  this  last  requirement  is  the  one  of  chief  importance. 


364 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  168. — Alfalfa  hay  in  the  making. 


A  ration  may  have  all  the  characteristics  given  above,  and 
yet  its  cost  may  be  so  great  as  to  make  its  use  inadvisable. 
Home-grown  feeds  are  usually  most  economical  and,  on  this 
account,  should  generally  form  the  greatest  part  of  the 
ration,  even  though  such  a  ration  might  lack  some  of  the 
desired  characteristics.  In  the  West,  most  rations  will  contain 

more  protein 
than  is  thought 
to  be  necessary, 
because  a  large 
part  of  the  pro- 
tein is  supplied 
in  a  relatively 
cheap  feed, 
alfalfa,  which 
forms  the  basis 
of  most  western 
rations. 

Feeding  the  Animal.  Cleanliness  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  successful  feeding  of  all  classes  of  animals.  The  feeds 
should  be  clean,  and  great  care  taken  to  keep  the  mangers, 
feed  boxes,  etc.,  clean.  All  classes  of  animals  will  do  better 
if  fed  and  cared  for  regularly.  They  come  to  expect  their 
care  at  certain  times  and  are  ready  for  it.  Sudden  changes 
in  the  ration  should  always  be  avoided,  as  digestive  dis- 
orders may  result  from  them.  Never  feed  more  at  any  one 
time  than  the  animals  will  clean  up. 

Animals  should  have  access  at  all  times  to  a  supply  of 
pure,  fresh  water,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  salt.  Kindness  is 
most  important  in  the  treatment  of  all  stock.  It  is  pitiable 
to  see  an  old  cow  with  a  large  udder  full  of  milk  being  hur- 
ried home  from  pasture  with  a  dog  at  her  heels,  and  her  udder 
swinging  from  side  to  side  at  every  step. 

Horses.  Alfalfa  hay  is  without  question  the  best  hay 
for  most  horses,  though  for  driving  and  race  horses  some  kind 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


365 


of  grass  hay  may  be  more  desirable,  because  it  is  less  laxative. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  less  grain  is  required  with 
alfalfa  hay  than  with  the  grass  hays.  About  two  thirds  of 
the  hay  ration  should  be  fed  at  night  and  one  third  in  the 
morning,  with  little  or  none  at  noon.  As  a  grain,  oats  takes 
first  place,  though  bran  and  bran  and  shorts  have  been  fed 


Figure  169. — Corn  has  come  to  be  recognized  as  an  important  crop  for  the  silo  in 

the  West. 


successfully  to  horses  at  slow  work.  Corn,  barley,  and  wheat 
may  also  be  used  where  available. 

Throughout  most  sections  of  the  West  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  feed  too  much  hay  to  horses.  Alfalfa  hay  is  very 
palatable  and  as  a  result  horses  will  consume  too  much  if 
it  is  not  restricted.  This  overconsumption,  besides.being 
wasteful,  results  in  laziness  and  lack  of  spirit  in  the  horses 
and  frequently  brings  on  digestive  disorders.  From  one  to 
one  and  one  quarter  pounds  of  hay  and  three  quarters  to 
one  pound  of  grain  per  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight  is  a 
good  basis  from  which  to  begin  the  calculation  of  a  ration 
for  the  average  horse.  A  sixteen  hundred  pound  draft  horse 
would,  therefore,  be  fed  from  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  and  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  of  grain  daily. 

Dairy  Cows.  In  the  winter  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  sum- 
mer conditions  should  be  imitated  as  closely  as  possible. 
There  should  be,  therefore,  an  abundant  supply  of  palatable. 


366  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

succulent  feed,  and  the  cow  should  be  kept  in  warm,  com- 
fortable quarters.  Alfalfa  hay  should  form  the  basis  of  the 
ration,  though  this,  for  best  results  with  good  cows,  must 
be  supplemented  with  some  grain  and  roots  or  grain  and 
silage.  The  silo  has  long  been  successfully  used  on  eastern 
dairy  farms  and  in  recent  years  silage  has  proved  a  most 
valuable  addition  to  the  dairy  ration  in  many  sections  of 
the  West. 

For  the  smaller  cows  a  ration  made  up  of  eighteen  to 
twenty-five  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay,  twenty-five  pounds  of 
silage  and  from  three  to  eight  pounds  of  grain  has  given 
good  results.  For  the  larger  cows  the  hay  should  be  increased 
to  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  pounds  and  the  silage  to 
thirty  pounds.  Grain  should,  of  course,  always  be  fed 
according  to  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  produced. 

In  summer  about  all  that  is  necessary  is  a  good  pasture. 
It  is,  however,  advisable  to  have  dry  alfalfa  hay  before  the 
cows  at  night,  so  they  can  supplement  short  pastures  or 
make  up  for  time  lost  in  fighting  flies.  A  small  allowance  of 
grain  in  addition  to  the  pasture  and  hay  will  be  found  profit- 
able for  heavy  producing  cows. 

Beef  Cattle.  Where  marketing  facilities  and  cropping 
system  will  permit,  beef  cattle  can  be  profitably  fattened  on 
westeVn  farms.  Here  again  alfalfa  hay  will  form  the  basis 
of  the  ration.  From  three  to  ten  pounds  of  grain  per  head 
daily  will  probably  be  found  sufficient.  Where  silage  is 
available  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  this  will  be  an 
excellent  addition  to  the  ration. 

Barley  or  a  mixture  of  barley  and  bran  will  in  many  sec- 
tions be  found  the  most  economical  grain  to  feed.  Any  of 
the  grains  are  good  if  obtainable  at  reasonable  prices. 

Sheep.  For  summer  feeding  of  sheep  a  good  pasture  or 
range  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Usually  all  that  is  required, 
in  addition  to  good  winter  range,  is  alfalfa  hay,  save  when 
the  sheep  are  to  be  fattened  for  market.     Barley  is  the  grain 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


367 


most  frequently  fed  in  the  West  to  fatten  sheep.  A  practical 
ration  for  fattening  lambs  consists  of  what  alfalfa  hay  they 
will  clean  up  well  and  three  fourths  of  a  pound  of  barley  per 
head  daily.  Lambs  fed  on  this  ration  or  on  some  other 
grasses  and  grains  show  a  good  average  daily  gain. 

Both  cattle  and  sheep  are  fattened  in  large  numbers 
near  sugar  factories  where  green  beet  pulp  is  available.    The 


"'^Sis- 


Figure  170 — The  mountains  of  the  West  supply  an  abundance  of  nutritious  food  in 

summer. 

ration  for  cattle  is  made  up  of  a  limited  allowance  of  hay,  grass 
hay  being  frequently  used,  from  one  to  five  pounds  of  grain, 
and  what  green  beet  pulp  the  cattle  will  consume.  More 
than  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  pulp  per  head  daily  is  fre- 
quently eaten.  A  similar  ration  is  given  sheep,  except  that 
the  daily  grain  allowance  ranges  from  one  half  to  two  pounds 
per  head. 

Hogs.  Hogs  do  well  on  good  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape 
pasture  in  the  summer,  though  they  should  never  be  made  to 
depend  on  this  entirely.     From  two  to  eight  pounds  of  grain 


368  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

per  head  daily  in  addition  to  the  pasture  may  be  fed  with 
profit,  the  amount  varying  with  the  size  of  the  pig  and  the 
object  in  feeding  it — fattening  hogs  of  course  getting  the 
most  grain.  In  the  winter  hogs  will  eat  considerable  amounts 
of  alfalfa  hay,  if  fine.  Roots  and  skim  milk  are  also  relished. 
Com  is  perhaps  the  best  grain  to  feed  with  alfalfa  and  roots, 
though  barley  and  shorts  may  also  be  fed  to  advantage  and 
will  actually  be  found  cheaper  in  many  sections. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  function  of  farm  animals?     Illustrate  how  each  is 

of  value  to  man. 

2.  Name  and  briefly  describe  the  six  food  nutrients. 

3.  How  are  the  various  feeds  utilized  in  the  animal  body? 

4.  Give  six  characteristics  of  a  good  ration  with  reasons  for  each. 

5.  How  should  horses  be  fed  for  best  results? 

6.  Why  and  how  should  a  dairy  ration  differ  from  a  ration  for  horses? 

7.  Discuss  briefly  sheep  and  hog  feeding. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  oats,  wheat,  barley,  corn,  rye,  and  any  mixed  feed  on  the 

market;  quart  measure  and  scales.  Measure  out  and  weigh  one 
quart  of  each  of  the  grains.     Calculate  the  weight  to  the  bushel. 

2.  With  a  tape  measure  or  ruler  measm-e  a  grain  bin  and  determine 

its  cubical  contents.  From  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  the 
bin,  and  in  a  bushel,  and  the  weight  of  a  bushel  of  the  different 
•  kinds  of  grain  as  determined  in  Exercise  1,  find  the  number 
of  bushels  and  weight  of  each  kmd  of  grain  which  can  be  put 
into  the  bin. 
Note:    There  are  1.2445  cubic  feet  in  a  bushel. 

3.  Use  a  small  bunch  of  alfalfa,  clover,  timothy,  redtop,  and  wild 

hays,  com  stover,  and  straw.  Study  each  sample  separately; 
note  the  relative  proportions  of  leaves  and  stalks;  the  way  the 
stalks  branch;  the  coarseness  of  the  stalks;  the  way  the  leaves 
are  attached  to  the  stalks;  the  ease  with  which  the  leaves  are 
broken  from  the  stalks;  the  ease  with  which  the  leaves  are 
crushed.  What  relation  has  each  of  these  to  the  dustiness  and 
the  quality  of  the  hay? 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS  369 

4.  To  find  the  amounts  of  hay  and  grain  consumed  by  the  different 
kinds  of  farm  animals,  weigh  the  customary  feed  of  hay  and 
grain  given  to  each  of  several  animals.  Note  the  kind,  age, 
and  size  of  the  animals,  and  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  feed. 

REFERENCES 

Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  WoU. 

Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition,  Armsby. 

Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals,  Bull. 

Feeds  and  Feeding,  Henry  and  Morrison. 

The  Nutrition  of  Farm  Animals,  Armsby. 

Feeding  of  Animals,  Jordan. 

Profitable  Stock  Feeding,  Smith. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  Eckles. 

Swine,  Dietrich. 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  Day. 

Sheep  Farming,  Craig. 

Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges,  Barnes. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.    22.     The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals. 

170.     Principles  of  Horse  Feeding. 

536.     Stock  Poisoning  Due  to  Scarcity  of  Food. 

578.     Handling  and  Feeding  Silage. 

690.     The  Field  Pea  as  a  Forage  Crop. 

724.     The  Feeding  of  Grain  Sorghums  to  Live  Stock. 

743.     The  Feeding  of  Dairy  Cows. 

777.     Feeding  and  Management  of  Dairy  Calves  and  Young 
Dairy  Stock. 

873.     Utilization  of  Farm  Waste  in  Feeding  Live  Stock. 


24— 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

THE  CARE  OF  ANIMALS 

Probably  the  most  neglected  and  least  understood  part 
of  the  live  stock  business  is  the  proper  care  of  animals.  Live 
stock  is  usually  handled  in  a  haphazard  way  with  but  little 
regard  for  system  or  detail,  and,  as  a  result,  great  losses  are 
experienced  yearly.  According  to  a  recent  report  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  loss  of  animals  in  one  year  in 
the  United  States  alone,  from  disease  and  exposure,  was,  in 
round  numbers,  six  and  a  half  million  swine,  two  and  a  half 
million  sheep,  two  million  cattle,  and  one  half  million  horses 
and  mules.  The  monetary  loss  is  placed  at  $200,000,000 
yearly,  a  startling  waste  of  resources. 

CAUSES  OF  DISEASES 

Confinement  in  Close  Quarters.  With  proper  under- 
standing of  the  care  of  animals  many  of  the  losses  now  ex- 
perienced could  be  prevented.  At  one  time,  when  the  open 
range  was  plentiful  and  the  live  stock  were  allowed  to  roam 
at  will  over  the  country  and  select  desirable  food  and  pro- 
tection, diseases  were  almost  unknown.  Artificial  methods 
of  feeding  and  housing  bring  on  many  disorders  and  diseases 
that  were  not  known  on  the  open  range.  Whenever  animals 
are  gathered  in  large  numbers,  there  is  an  increased  tendency 
toward  disease,  as  their  freedom  is  interfered  with,  and,  in- 
stead of  selecting  their  own  forage,  they  are  compelled  to 
take  whatever  is  supplied  them — too  much  or  too  little  food 
that  is  not  of  a  nourishing  nature,  or  that  is  spoiled.  They 
may  be  housed  in  stables  or  barns  that  are  poorly  lighted 
and  ventilated  and  that  are  often  in  a  very  unsanitary  con- 
dition.   Again,  they  may  not  be  allowed  free  access  to  good 

370 


THE  CAKE  OF  ANIMALS 


371 


water  at  regular  intervals.  All  these  causes  have  a  tendency 
to  lessen  the  resistance  of  the  animals  and  make  them  more 
susceptible  to  disease.  Some  of  the  common  causes,  then, 
of  disease  among  live  stock  are  poor  feed,  poor  quality  or 
irregular  access  to  feed  and  water,  poor  ventilation  or  expo- 


Figure  171. — A  picture  of  trouble;  a  neglected  cow 


sure,  lack  of  exercise,  heredity,  germs,  parasites,  and  affected 
teeth  and  feet,  mostly  preventable  by  proper  care. 

Overfeeding.  Animals  that  are  overfed  and  allowed  to 
become  too  fat  are  susceptible  to  disorders  and  disease  and 
are  not  able  to  endure  hard  work  satisfactorily.  Horses  are 
often  given  large  amounts  of  feed  just  before  they  are  com- 
pelled to  perform  hard  work  or  go  on  a  long  journey,  a  prac- 
tice which  is  extremely  detrimental.  The  stomach,  being 
small,  is  unduly  distended,  or  the  food  is  forced  on  into  the 
intestines  before  it  is  acted  on  by  the  stomach  juices.  The 
animal  body  can  take  care  of  only  a  certain  amount  of 
nourishing  matter;  anything  over  this  amount  must  be  ex- 
creted.    The  digestive  organs  are  taxed  to  their  utmost  to 


372  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

digest  the  food  and  then  the  organs  of  ahmentation  are  again 
taxed  to  get*  rid  of  the  excess.  In  this  way  the  animal  soon 
wears  out  and  breaks  down.  Unnutritious,  bulky,  or  spoiled 
food  overtaxes  the  digestive  system. 

It  is  also  bad  to  feed  much  to  warm  or  tired  animals. 
Sudden  changes  of  food  may  also  bring  on  disorders.     When 


Figure  172. — Exposed  horses;  poor  care. 

heavy  work  is  stopped,  feed  should  be  lightened  up  con- 
siderably in  order  to  prevent  trouble. 

Poisonous  Plants.  Animals  may  get  poisonous  plants 
or  roots  of  such  plants  in  pastures  or  in  hay,  often  over- 
coming them  entirely  or  weakening  their  bodies  until  rather 
susceptible  to  disease. 

Bad  or  Irregular  Water.  Where  animals  are  worked 
from  about  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  noon,  in  the 
hot  sun,  without  being  allowed  a  drink  during  this  time, 
they  often  drink  too  much;  and,  if  this  water  is  cold,  it  tends 
to  injure  them.  Work  animals  should  be  allowed  water 
once  or  oftener  during  the  half  day,  if  possible.  The  person 
who  drives  the  horses  usually  takes  a  drink  at  intervals  dur- 
ing the  half  day  and  he  should  think  of  the  animals  at  the 
same  time.  Horses  would  then  stand  more  and  be  less 
liable  to  digestive  troubles  and  other  diseases.     Water  may 


THE  CARE  OF  ANIMALS  373 

contain  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  parasites, 
bacteria,  or  minerals,  all  or  any  of  which  may  prove  injurious. 
Only  pure  water  should  be  given  animals  at  regular  intervals 
as  frequently  as  they  require,  according  to  the  work. 

Poor  Ventilation.  Some  animals  are  compelled  to  stand 
in  an  ill-kept  and  poorly  ventilated  stable  most  of  the  time. 
To  do  so  is  equally  detrimental,  as  animals  require  good 
fresh  air  and  plenty  of  exercise.  Resistance  is  weakened 
and  many  bodily  disorders  are  contracted.  Animals  should 
also  have  protection  from  cold  and  wet. 

Parasites.  Animals  are  often  affected  by  internal  and 
external  parasites  which  may  lower  their  resistance  and 
make  them  more  susceptible  to  diseases.  Among  internal 
parasites  are  round  worms,  flat  worms,  bots,  and  liver  para- 
sites. These  usually  cause  animals  to  become  unthrifty, 
often  making  them  susceptible  to  infectious  diseases. 
Among  external  parasites  are  mange,  itch,  mites,  ticks, 
lice,  ringworm,  and  flies.  Generous  feeding  is  a  good 
preventive  for  parasitic  diseases,  as  it  keeps  the  animals 
strong  and  healthy.  Medicines  may.  be  oils  that  suffocate, 
poisons  that  kill,  or  irritants  that  devour  or  disperse  the 
parasites.  There  is  no  one  remedy  for  overcoming  this 
trouble  in  all  animals. 

Germs.  Contagious  and  infectious  diseases  are  brought 
about  by  germs  which  usually  enter  the  animal  body  through 
the  digestive  and  respiratory  tracts  or  through  wounds  and 
abrasions.  Germs  thrive  best  in  filthy  places,  such  as  poorly 
ventilated  or  poorly  lighted  stables,  where  much  manure 
has  accumulated,  or  where  there  is  decaying  matter,  wet 
soils,  stagnant  water,  or  unsanitary  surroundings. 

■  The  Teeth.  If  one  tooth  does  not  come  in  proper  con- 
tact with  the  one  on  the  opposite  jaw,  there  is  nothing  to 
wear  it  away,  and  such  teeth  grow  out  long  and  lacerate 
the  tissues  of  the  opposite  jaw,  causing  severe  pain  and  inter- 
fering seriously  with  the  animal's  eating.     We  may  also  find 


374  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

sharp,  decayed  and  ulcerated,  split  or  broken  teeth.  These 
should  be  treated.  Some  men  feed  animals  patent  feeds  or 
powders,  expecting  them  to  do  better  and  lay  on  flesh,  when 
there  is  nothing  wrong  with  the  animal  except  that  its  teeth 
are  bad.  The  usefulness  of  the  horse  depends  largely  upon 
the  teeth,  because,  if  they  are  affected,  the  entire  body 
suffers.  Horses'  teeth  should  be  examined  at  least  once  a 
year  by  a  qualified  veterinarian.  The  general  symptoms  of 
affected  teeth  are  unthriftiness  in  spite  of  good  feed  and  no 
work,  saliva  dribbling  from  the  mouth,  often  chewing  the 
feed  and  then  spitting  it  out  again.  Difficulty  in  chewing, 
holding  the  head  sidewise,  and  chewing  only  on  one  side; 
drinking  cold  water  very  slowly,  throwing  head  to  one  side, 
slobbering  it  from  the  mouth  again;  a  swelling  of  the  jaw, 
a  refusal  of  food,  fetid  odors  from  the  mouth,  and  manure 
containing  undigested  food,  all  indicate  tooth  troubles.  For 
tliese  indications  a  veterinarian  is  indispensable. 

The  Feet.  Another  absolute  necessity  in  handling  the 
animal  is  the  care  of  the  feet.  The  old  adage,  **No  foot, 
no  horse,"  is  indeed  a  true  one,  because  an  animal  with 
poor  feet  is  not  capable  of  carrying  itself  over  the  ground 
properly,  and  hence  cannot  perform  its  work  efficiently. 
Care  of  the  feet  of  colts  is  of  especial  importance,  and  abun- 
dant exercise  on  dry  ground  which  is  not  too  rough  is  most 
beneficial.  The  hoofs  are  thus  worked  gradually  and  uni- 
formly. It  is  also  necessary  to  keep  the  hoof  clean  by  fre- 
quent and  thorough  washing  and  by  bedding  with  plenty 
of  good  straw,  if  in  the  stable.  Shoeing  is  a  necessary  evil. 
Owing  to  hard  roads,  the  feet  of  work  animals  must  be  pro- 
tected with  shoes.  After  the  feet  are  properly  trimmed, 
the  shoe  should  be  made  to  fit  the  foot  and  not  the  foot  to 
fit  the  shoe,  as  is  too  commonly  the  case.  The  frog  should 
be  left  large  and  elastic,  as  nature  has  provided,  to  take  off 
some  of  the  concussion  that  would  otherwise  be  transmitted 
to  the  body. 


THE  CARE  OF  ANIMALS  375 

Too  early  shoeing  of  young  horses  is  very  injurious,  as 
it  hinders  the  development  of  the  hoofs.  Moderate  work 
in  the  fields  does  not  injure  young  horses,  but  for  such  work 
they  do  not  need  shoes.  It  is  advisable  to  allow  horses  to 
go  barefoot  whenever  possible,  but  the  hoof  should  be  kept 
trimmed. 

Heredity.  Such  conditions  as  faulty  conformation,  bony 
blemishes,  as  ringbones  and  spavins  are  often  transmitted 
from  parent  to  offspring  and  develop  sometime  during  the 
lifetime.     The  weakness  is  transmitted,  not  the  disease. 

PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE 

Grooming.  Grooming  animals  is  the  process  of  mechan- 
ically cleaning  the  skin  and  coat  and  of  applying  friction 
and  massage  to  them.  Grooming  is  a  necessity  for  confined 
or  working  animals  imposed  on  them  by  domestication. 

Animals  ''turned  out"  require  no  grooming,  as  nature 
takes  care  of  them,  furnishing  them  with  the  coat  that  is 
necessary  for  their  environment. 

Proper  grooming  cleanses  the  coat  and  skin,  stimulates 
the  circulation,  assists  the  action  of  the  lungs,  gives  tone  to 
the  skin,  and  acts  beneficially  on  the  muscular  structure. 
Especially  should  the  legs  and  feet  receive  proper  attention. 

Neglect  of  grooming  may  bring  on  skin  diseases,  partic- 
ularly the  parasitic  forms;  it  also  allows  wastes  that  are  to 
be  thrown  off  by  the  skin  to  be  absorbed  by  the  body,  less- 
ening the  resistance  of  the  animal  and  allowing  greater 
chance  for  disease. 

Disinfection.  Disinfection  is  intended  to  check  the 
spread  of  contagious  diseases  and  to  protect  from  further 
infection  animals  which  may  be  already  diseased.  When 
a  yard  or  corral  is  being  disinfected,  all  the  litter  should  be 
removed,  the  ground  burned  over  with  a  layer  of  straw. 
Three  or  four  inches  of  surface  dirt  may  be  removed,  or  the 
entire  surface  sprayed  with  some  good  disinfectant,  such  as 


376  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

a  five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  creolin,  or  lysol. 
The  same  material  can  also  be  used  for  disinfecting  the  in- 
side of  bams  or  stables.  Where  there  is  considerable  wood- 
work inside  barns,  corrosive  sublimate  is  often  used  in  from 
one  to  five  per  cent  solution  with  hot  water.  Any  germs 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight  for  a  length  of  time  are  destroyed. 
This  is  nature's  method  of  overcoming  injurious  germs. 
Allow  plenty  of  sunlight. 

Quarantine.  Where  infectious  or  contagious  disease  ex- 
ists the  well  animals  should  be  removed  from  the  diseased 
ones  to  clean  dry  surroundings.  The  infected  premises 
should  be  cleaned  up  by  thorough  disinfection  and  all  the 
dead  animals  properly  disposed  of.  The  well  ones  should 
be  watched  to  see  if  any  come  down  with  the  disease,  and 
as  soon  as  noticed  removed  to  the  sick  herd. 

When  introducing  new  animals  into  a  herd  or  flock,  it 
is  best  to  keep  them  quarantined  for  about  two  weeks  to 
make  sure  that  they  are  healthy,  before  allowing  them  to 
mingle  with  the  other  animals. 

Disposal  of  Carcasses.  All  dead  animals,  especially  if 
death  was  due  to  some  contagious  disease,  should  be  burned 
or  buried  deep  in  the  ground.  The  most  effective  method 
in  burying  animals  is  to  put  them  about  six  or  eight  feet 
under  ground  and  cover  them  with  a  layer  of  quicklime. 

ACCIDENTS  AND  TREATMENT  OF  WOUNDS 

Wounds  and  abrasions  of  the  skin  and  of  other  parts  of 
the  body  are  often  responsible  for  much  trouble  among 
animals,  causing  the  resistance  of  the  body  to  be  overcome. 
The  only  way  success  can  be  obtained  with  wounds  of  any 
kind  is  to  observe  perfect  cleanliness. 

The  blood  should  be  stopi:)ed  by  the  tying  of  the  bleed- 
ing vessel  with  a  piece  of  clean  cord  or  silk  or  by  applying 
clean  absorbent  cotton  over  the  wound  and  then  placing  a 
roller  bandage  over  the  injured  part.    After  all  bleeding 


THE  CARE  OF  ANIMALS 


Zll 


has  stopped  the  wound  can  be  dressed  by  removing  all 
foreign  objects  or  hair  that  may  be  hanging  on  the  wound, 
and  cleaned  with  a  mild  antiseptic  solution  consisting  of 
about  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  creolin,  carboUc  acid,  or 
lysol.  It  should  then  be  covered  with  a  drying  powder 
consisting  of  equal  parts  of  boric  and  tannic  acid  and  about 


Figure  173. — Cattle  given  natural  and  proper  care. 

one  half  part  of  iodoform  mixed  together,  covered"  with  ab- 
sorbent cotton,  and  wrapped  with  a  bandage.  The  wound 
should  be  dressed  daily  with  the  drying  powder,  clean  cot- 
ton and  a  bandage  until  healing  is  well  along. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  diseases  of  animals  more  frequent  now  than  formerly? 

2.  List  the  causes  of  disease. 

3.  What  dangers  accompany  overfeeding? 

4.  State  the  precautions  considered  advisable  in  watering  animals. 

5.  Give  the  principal  points  concerning  ventilation,  cleaning  stables, 

and  grooming. 

6.  Describe  the  most  common  diseases  and  give  control  measures. 

7.  What  is  disinfection?    When  should  it  be  practiced? 

8.  Discuss  vaccination. 

9.  How  should  an  animal's  teeth  be  cared  for?     Its  feet? 
10.     Give  methods  in  caring  for  wounds. 


378  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  If  it  should  so  happen  that  a  veterinarian  is  caring  for  an  injured 

horse  in  the  neighborhood,  it  might  be  profitable  to  watch  him 
treat  it. 

2.  If  convenient  to  all  concerned,  visit  a  blacksmith  shop  and  get 

him  to  explain  as  he  shoes  a  horse. 
Note:    Arrangements  for  both  these  exercises  should  be  made 
with  the  men  concerned. 

REFERENCES 

% 

Veterinary  Medicine,  5  vols.,  Law. 
Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals,  Craig. 
The  Farmers'  Veterinarian,  Burkett. 
Animal  Doctor,  Leaney. 
Diseases  of  Animals,  Mayo. 
Special  Reports,  U.  S.  D.  A. 
Diseases  of  Cattle. 
Diseases  of  the  Horse. 
Diseases  of  Horses,  Cattle,  and  Hogs,  Mcintosh. 
Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  Gay. 
Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  Day. 
Horseshoeing,  Lungwitz. 
Animal  Dentistry,  Maralett. 

Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges,  Barnes. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  D.  A. 
No.  152.     Scabies  of  Cattle. 

179.     Horseshoeing. 

206.     Milk  Fever  and  Its  Treatment. 

345.     Some  Common  Disinfectants. 

351.     Tuberculin  Test  of  Cattle  for  Tuberculosis. 

379.  Hog  Cholera. 

380.  The  Loco-Weed  Disease. 
439.     Anthrax. 

531.  Larkspur,  or  "Poison  Weed." 

536.  Stock  Poisoning  Due  to  Scarcity  of  Feed. 

540.  The  Stable  Fly. 

666.  The  Foot-and-Mouth  Disease. 

720.  Prevention  of  Losses  of  Stock  from  Poisonous  Plants. 

784.  Anthrax  or  Charbon. 

790.  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cattle. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
SUGAR  AND  FLOUR 

SUGAR 

Long  before  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  Era,  cane  and  bam- 
boo were  cultivated  for  the  sugar  that  could  be  extracted  from 
them.  The  process  of  extraction  was  primitive  indeed.  The 
raw  cane  was  used  as  food.  From  the  fifth  to  the  tenth 
century  A.  D.  sugar  was  extracted  and  crystallized  in  small 
quantities  and  used  by  physicians  as  a  medicine.  Since  then 
its  use  as  a  food  has  rapidly  developed,  and,  though  it  was 
long  regarded  as  a  luxury  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  wealthy 
classes  alone,  it  is  now  a  necessity  in  every  household. 

Cane  Sugar.  The  first  sugar  factory  to  operate  success- 
fully in  the  United  States  was  built  in  Louisiana  in  1791, 
and  from  that  time  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
sugar  industry  maintained  a  steady  growth  in  the  South. 
A  variety  of  cane  had  been  found  that  flourished  in  the 
warm  climate  and  on  the  fertile  soil  of  the  lower  Mississippi 
Valley.  The  slave  trade  made  labor  cheap;  as  a  result, 
large  cane  plantations  could  be  managed  at  low  cost.  Dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  more  than  sixty 
per  cent  of  the  world's  sugar  supply  was  produced  by  slave 
labor,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  our  own  Southern  States  lead- 
ing. The  abolition  of  slavery  in  America  and  the  simulta- 
neous development  of  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  Europe 
operated  as  checks  on  the  extension  of  sugar  cane  culture. 
At  the  present  time  about  half  of  the  world's  production  is 
from  beets,  the  other  half  being  almost  entirely  from  cane, 
though  a  little  maple  sugar  is  still  being  made.  Within 
the  last  ten  years  the  amount  of  cane  sugar  annually  pro- 

379 


380  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

duced  has  decreased  about  ten  per  cent,  while  the  beet  sugar 
production  has  increased  more  than  twelve  hundred  per  cent. 

Louisiana.  More  than  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  cane 
sugar  produced  in  the  United  States  is  raised  and  manu- 
factured in  Louisiana.  The  system  governing  the  price  paid 
for  cane  is  unique.  The  farmers  receive  $L00  per  ton  for  cane 
for  each  cent  per  pound  received  by  the  factories  for  the  sugar. 
Thus,  if  the  wholesale  factory  price  for  sugar  is  3c  per  pound, 
the  cane  is  paid  for  at  $3.00  per  ton. 

Hawaii  and  Cuba.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  especially 
well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cane.  The  average  yield 
is  thirty-five  tons  an  acre  and  twice  that  amount  is  not 
unusual.  No  other  country  in  the  world  has  so  high  an 
average  yield,  and  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  Hawaiian  cane 
is  higher  than  the  average  anywhere  else.  Cuba  cultivates 
a  much  greater  acreage  than  Hawaii  and  exports  more 
sugar  than  any  other  country.  In  1909  Cuba  produced 
1,573,582  tons  of  cane  sugar;  Java,  1,241,885;  Hawaii,  500,- 
000  tons  and  Brazil,  248,000  tons. 

BEET  SUGAR 

History.  It  was  a  German  chemist,  Marggraf,  who,  in 
1747,  first  obtained  sugar  from  beets.  It  was  fifty  years 
after  this  discovery  was  made  before  the  first  beet  sugar 
factory  was  built.  For  fifty  years  more  the  sugar  beet  in- 
dustry struggled  for  recognition,  but  found  it  almost  impos- 
sible to  compete  successfully  with  the  cane.  Then  modern 
methods,  improved  machinery,  and  a  protective  tariff  came 
to  its  aid,  with  the  result  indicated  as  follows: 

Beet  sugar  produced  in  Germany  in  1836,  14,000  tons; 
1877,  378,000  tons;  1886,  1,000,000  tons;  and  in  1906,  2,- 
223,500  tons.  The  average  extraction  in  Germany  is  15.7 
per  cent  and  the  cost  of  production  two  cents  a  pound. 

The  sugar  obtained  from  beets  is  identical  with  cane 
sugar  when  both  are  pure.  The  iiiii)urities  contained  in 
the  two  sugars  are  different. 


SUGAR  AND  FLOUR 


381 


Figure  174. — Sugar  factory,  Logan,  Utah. 


In  the  United  States.  Although  the  Alvarado  factory 
was  built  in  California  in  1870  and  has  been  in  operation  con- 
tinuously since  that  time,  the  beet  sugar  industry  amounted 
to  very  little  in  the  United  States  prior  to  1897.  Since  then 
the  growth  of  the  industry  has  been  phenomenal.  In  1892 
the  United  States  produced  13,000  tons  of  beet  sugar;  in  1897, 
45,000  tons;  in  1902,  281,406  tons;  in  1910,  510,172  tons;  and 

in  1914,700,000 
tons.  The  cost 
of  producing 
beet  sugar  in 
the  United 
States  varies 
greatly  in  the 
different  fac- 
tories, depend- 
ing upon  the 
price  of  labor, 

price  paid  for  beets,  the  composition  of  the  beet  and  the 
efficiency  with  which  it  is  extracted. 

Russia  produces  nearly  1,500,000  tons  of  beet  sugar  annu- 
ally, but  Germany  leads  with  an  annual  production  of  2,500,- 
ODO  tons.  In  1914,  the  six  greatest  sugar-producing  states  in 
this  country,  in  order,  with  the  number  of  factories,  were,  for 
(1)  Colorado,  sixteen;  (2)  Michigan,  sixteen;  (3)  California, 
thirteen;  (4)  Utah,  seven;  (5)  Idaho,  five;  (6)  Ohio,  five.  In 
addition,  there  are  sixteen  factories  scattered  in  other  states 
making  seventy-eight  in  all. 

The  United  States  produces  annually  more  than  a  half 
miUion  tons  of  beet  sugar  and  almost  as  much  cane  sugar. 
In  addition  to  this,  we  import  approximately  two  millions 
of  tons  of  sugar  annually  for  which  we  send  out  of  the  country 
$130,000,000  every  year.  This  cost  of  imported  sugar  added 
to  the  value  of  our  home  product  makes  the  sugar  bill  of 
the  United  States  one  million  dollars  a  day. 


382 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Storage  Bins.  Beets  delivered  at  the  factory  are  stored 
in  long  V-shaped  bins.  The  floor  of  each  bin  is  made  in 
small  movable  sections  and  directly  under  the  floor  there  is  a 
sluice,  or  flume,  through  which  a  rapid  stream  of  water  flows. 
A  section  of  the  floor  near  the  lower  end  of  the  bin  is  removed 
and  the  beets  are  allowed  to  drop  into  the  stream  below, 

which  carries  them  to  the  mill, 
meanwhile  freeing  them  from  much 
dirt.  They  are  removed  from  the 
stream  by  means  of  large  steel 
flanges  on  a  wheel  that  elevates 
them  to  the  scrubber.  The  scrub- 
ber is  a  large  tank  filled  with  water 
and  having  rotating  brushes  or  pad- 
dles that  move  the  beets  through 
the  water  to  remove  the  dirt. 

From  the  scrubber  the  beets 
are  elevated  by  cups  on  an  endless 
belt  to  the  top  of  the  mill  where 
they  arc  delivered  to  an  automatic 
weighing  machine. 

Removing  the  Juice.  The 
sheer  is  a  large  steel  cylinder  in 
which  the  beets  are  cut  into  long 
slender  strips  called  cossettes.  The 
cossettes  are  carried  in  an  iron  trough  to  the  diffusion  batterj^ 
which  consists  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  steel  tanks  or  cells, 
each  holding  about  two  and  one  half  tons  of  cossettes. 

The  sugar  is  dissolved  out  of  the  beets  by  a  stream  of 
warm  water,  which  enters  at  the  top  of  one  cell,  passes 
down  through  the  mass  of  cossettes,  up  through  a  heating 
tube,  and  down  through  the  next  cell.  The  juice  is  piped 
from  the  diffusion  battery  to  the  measuring  tank.  When 
the  sugar  has  been  extracted,  the  remaining  pulp  is  pumjxjd 
to  the  silo  and  is  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  other  live  stock. 


Fipire  175. — Centrifugal  machines 
in  a  sugar  factory. 


SUGAR  AND  FLOUR  383 

Purifying  the  Juice.  The  juice  that  accumulates  in  the 
measuring  tank  is  a  dark-colored,  sweet  liquid  containing  a 
high  percentage  of  sugar  mixed  with  various  impurities. 
Milk  of  lime  is  added  to  the  juice  which  absorbs  a  vast 
quantity  of  the  impurities  suspended  in  the  liquid.  Carbon 
dioxide,  now  added,  unites  with  the  dissolved  portion  of 
the  lime,  forming  a  white  insoluble  substance  which  settles, 
carrying  with  it  much  of  the  dark-colored  matter. 

The  liquid  is  then  pressed  through  canvas  filters  to  sep- 
arate it  from  undissolved  lime  and  dark-colored  impurities. 
These  processes  are  repeated  for  further  purification. 

Sulphur  is  burned  and  the  gas  produced,  known  as  sul- 
phur dioxide,  is  passed  into  the  juice.  This  combines  with 
the  lime  in  the  solution,  forming  insoluble  compounds  which 
are  removed  by  filtering  through  canvas. 

Concentration.  The  liquid  is  now  concentrated  by  boil- 
ing off  a  part  of  the  water.  The  syrup  passes  to  the  crystal- 
lizing pan  where  the  evaporation  is  continued.  When  the 
desired  consistency  is  reached  the  mass  flows  into  the  mixer. 
In  another  vat  the  h^avy  brown  mass  is  stirred  until  it  is 
drawn  off  at  the  bottom  into  the  rapidly  rotating  centrif- 
ugals, large  steel  cylinders  with  perforated  linings.  The 
water,  carrying  some  sugar  in  solution,  passes  through  the 
perforations,  but  most  of  the  sugar  remains  in  the  cylinder. 

Sugar  Crystals.  The  crystals  are  scraped  from  the  walls 
of  the  vessel  and  carried  by  elevators  to  the  drier,  which  is 
a  horizontal  tube  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter  and  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  long  through  which  the  sugar  crystals  are  made 
to  travel  against  a  counter  current  of  hot  air.  The  sugar 
then  drops  down  a  chute  or  pipe  to  the  sacker  where  it  is 
placed  in  one-hundred-pound  bags  ready  for  the  market. 

The  syrup  that  passes  through  the  centrifuge  is  rich  in 
sugar,  and  to  avoid  waste,  is  again  concentrated  in  evapora- 
tors, and  passed  through  centrifugal  machines.  The  liquid 
passing  the  second  centrifuge  is  also  saved,  and  subjected  to 


384  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

another  process  known  as  the  Steffcns  process,  where  an- 
other yield  of  sugar  is  obtained. 

FLOUR 

Our  country  produces  yearly  about  800,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat  and  12,000,000  tons  of  wheat  flour.     More  than  10,000 


4 

1 

1 

■ 

Figure  176. — Flour  mill  eleA^ator. 

flour  mills  are  in  constant  operation,  employing  40,000  men. 

In  Utah  there  are  sixty  mills,  producing  annually  more 
than  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  flour  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars,  worth  of  graham,  bran,  shorts,  rolled 
wheat  and  other  products. 

The  quality  of  flour  depends  largely  upon  the  kind  of 
wheat  used  in  its  manufacture.  For  this  reason  the  millers 
of  the  West  pay  a  higher  price  for  Turkey  Red  wheat  than  for 
any  other  variety.  The  quality  is  dependent  also  upon  the 
condition  of  the  wheat  and  the  milling  process.  Careful 
reduction  of  the  wheat  and  complete  separation  of  the  bran 
and  flour  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  good  flour. 

Milling  of  Wheat.  Wheat,  when  received  at  the  elevator, 
is  freed  from  the  chaff,  dirt,  shrunken  kernels,  and  other 


SUGAR  AND  FLOUR  385 

foreign  material  by  fanning  and  screening  it.  It  is  then 
stored  in  a  large  building,  the  elevator,  until  wanted  in  the 
mill.  The  wheat  then  passes  to  the  milling  separator  where 
it  is  given  another  treatment,  very  similar  to  the  first,  in 
which  a  more  complete  separation  is  accomplished.  The 
grain  then  goes  to  the  scourer,  a  rapidly  rotating  cylinder  in 
which  the  wheat  is  thrown  violently  against  the  perforated 
walls  of  the  machine.  This  agitation  removes  the  fine  hairs 
from  the  end  of  the  kernel  and  the  minute  particles  of 
dust  held  in  the  crease  of  the  berry.  An  exhaust  fan  con- 
nected with  the  scourer  removes  this  dust  from  the  cylinder. 

It  is  now  ready  for  tempering.  This  consists  in  moisten- 
ing the  wheat  with  water  and  allowing  it  to  stand  from  six 
to  twelve  hours  to  soften  the  outer  part  of  the  kernels  in 
order  that  large  flakes  of  bran  may  be  secured  with  a  mini- 
mum of  dust.  The  amount  of  water  added  depends  upon 
the  kind  of  grain  used,  hard  wheats  requiring  more  water 
and  a  longer  time  for  tempering  than  the  soft  varieties. 
Ordinarily  water,  amounting  to  two  or  three  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  wheat  is  used.  After  tempering,  the  wheat 
goes  through  a  second  scourer  and  then  passes  to  the  breaks. 

The  breaks  are  corrugated  steel  rollers  between  which  the 
wheat  is  crushed.  The  broken  wheat  is  sifted  through 
screens,  the  coarser  portions  being  sent  to  the  second  and 
third  breaks  and  the  finer  material  passing  to  the  smooth 
rolls.  After  passing  between  the  rolls,  whether  corrugated 
or  smooth,  the  mass  is  separated  by  screens  into  portions  of 
varying  degrees  of  fineness,  and  each  portion  is  sent  to  the 
other  rolls  set  close  enough  to  accomplish  further  reduction. 
Only  that  portion  which  passes  through  fine  bolting  silk  is 
sold  as  flour.  Ordinarily  wheat  yields  from  sixty-five 
to  seventy-five  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  flour  and  from 
twenty-five  per  cent  to  thirty-five  per  cent  in  bran  and  shorts. 

Bleaching  Agents.  It  has  been  the  custom  in  some  mills 
to  bleach  flour  by  such  chemical  agents  as  sulphur  dioxide 

25— 


386 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


or  nitrogen  peroxide.  This  practice  has  been  condemned  by 
food  experts,  because  sUght  amounts  of  the  bleaching  agents 
are  absorbed  and  retained  by  the  flour.  It  is  now  contrary 
to  the  pure  food  law  to  bleach  flour. 

Flour  Content.     Flour  contains  high  percentages  of  starch 
and  protein,  together  with  a  little  fat,  and  inorganic  matter. 


Figure  177. — Bread  made  of  flour  of  various  wheats. 


These  four  types  of  food,  carbohydrates  (starch  and  sugai*s), 
proteins,  fats,  and  mineral  matter,  are  all  that  are  required 
for  the  complete  nourishment  of  the  body. 

The  protein  content  (ten  to  eighteen  per  cent)  of  flour  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  gluten,  a  name  given  to  a  substance  com- 
posed of  two  distinct  chemical  bodies,  one  component  called 
gliadin,  which  is  responsible  for  the  stickiness  of  dough; 
the  other,  glutenin,  a  tough,  tasteless  substance. 

The  strength  of  flour,  that  is,  its  capacity  to  absorb  and 
hold  water  and  its  power  of  expanding  under  the  influence 
of  the  gas  (carbon  dioxide),  liberated  in  the  dough  by  yeast; 
is  dependent  upon  the  quantity  and  character  of  the  gluten 
present.  Hard  wheat  yields  flour  much  richer  in  gluten 
than  soft  wheat,  because  of  which  the  loaves  rise  higher, 
thereby  causing  the  bread  to  be  hghter.  Good  flour,  too, 
absorbs  more  water,  making  140  pounds  of  bread  instead 
of  130  for  soft  wheat  floui\ 


SUGAR  AND  FLOUR  387 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  the  history  of  cane  sugar. 

2.  Where  is  it  largely  produced? 

3.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  history  of  beet  sugar. 

4.  What  nations  produce  large  quantities  of  beet  sugar? 

5.  Where  in  the  U.  S.  is  cane  sugar  manufactured?     Beet  sugar? 

6.  Describe  the  principal  operations  in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar. 

7.  How  are  the  by-products  used?     State  their  value. 

8.  How  extensive  is  flour  manufacturing? 

9.  How  is  wheat  handled  previous  to  milling? 
10.  Describe  the  chief  operations  in  flour-milhng. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Double  a  small  strip  of  cotton  cloth.     Place  3  or  4  tablespoonfuls 

of  flour  on  it.  Now  gather  up  the  corners  and  knead  under  the 
tap.     The  starch  grains  wash  out,  leaving  the  gluten. 

2.  While  Exercise  1  is  being  performed,  let  other  members  of  the 

class  repeat  except  that  some  use  as  much  sugar  as  flour,  others 
as  much  salt  as  flour,  and  another  group  just  a  little  salt  and  a 
little  sugar  mixed  with  the  flour.  Each  treatment  should  be 
done  in  duphcate.     Compare  results. 

3.  If  convenient,  and  if  agreeable  to  the  miller,  visit  a  flour  mill. 

Let  the  miller  show  the  machinery  and  explain  the  process. 

4.  Collect  in  small  bottles  the  chief  milling  products.     Label  and 

preserve.  A  small  box  may  be  made  as  described  at  the  end  of 
Chapter  25. 

5.  If  near  a  sugar  factory  and  if  the  factory  manager  is  willing,  visit 

the  factory.     Let  the  guide  show  the  machinery  and  explain 
the  processes. 
Note:    Do  not  undertake  these  trips  unless  previously  arranged. 

REFERENCES 

The  Story  of  Sugar,  Surface. 

Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  Thorp. 

The  Sugar  Beet,  Ware. 

Sugar  Technology,  Mcintosh. 

Book  of  Wheat,  Dondlinger. 

Small  Grains,  Carle  ton. 

Cereals  in  America,  Hunt. 

Sugar  at  a  Glance,  Palmer,  Senate  Document  890. 

Bread  and  Bread  Making,  Farmers'  Bulletin  807. 


CHAPTER  XLV 
MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

Milk  is  a  special  fluid  secreted  by  the  females  of  all  ani- 
mals that  suckle  their  young.  It  is  manufactured  by  special 
glands  of  the  body  located  usually  on  the  outside  of  the  body 
wall,  that  is,  between  the  body  wall  and  the  skin.  Milk  is 
an  emulsion  of  fat  in  a  watery  solution  of  casein  and  various 
mineral  salts.  It  is  yellowish  white,  nontransparent,  and 
has  a  slightly  sweetish  taste. 

Milk  Secretion.  Milk  is  secreted  in  the  individual  cells 
which  go  to  make  up  the  udder,  as  the  mammary  glands  of 
a  cow  are  called.  From  each  cell  the  milk  is  carried  through 
small  canals  or  ducts  into  larger  ones  which  combine  to  unite 
on  their  way  toward  the  opening  in  the  teat,  from  which  the 
milk  is  drawn. 

Usually  milk  is  not  produced  in  the  udder  till  about  the 
time  the  female  gives  birth  to  young.  At  birth  of  the  young 
the  blood  which  went  to  nourish  the  unborn  is  turned  to  the 
udder,  stimulating  the  cells  to  great  activity,  which  results 
in  the  manufacture  of  milk. 

Food,  the  ultimate  source  of  milk,  is  taken  into  the  body, 
digested,  and  absorbed  by  the  blood  which  carries  it  to  the 
udder  whence  the  parts  needed  in  the  manufacture  of  milk 
are  taken. 

Milk  Composition.  Milk  is  composed  of  a  great  many 
different  compounds,  differing  widely  in  composition  and 
characteristics.  These  compounds  may  be  classified  into 
water  and  solids.  The  solids  are  composed  of  (a)  fat;  (b) 
casein,  that  part  which  curdles  when  milk  soui-s;  (c)  albumin, 
which  produces  a  thin  skin  or  film  over  milk  when  heated; 
(d)  milk  sugar,  the  same  in  chemical  composition  as  ordinary 

3S8 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


389 


sugar  but  less  sweet;  (e)  ash,  the  mineral  substance  which 
remains  after  drying  and  burning  milk.  The  following  figures 
quoted  from  Babcock  and  Koenig  by  Wing  show  the  average 
percentage  and  the  variation  of  the  constituents  of  milk: 


Table  X. — Percentage  of  Constituents  of  Milk. 


Average 

Water.... 

....87.17.. 

Fat 

.  ...  3.69.  . 

Casein .... 

.  ...  3.02.  . 

Albumin.  . 

53.. 

Sugar 

.  ...   4.88.. 

Ash 

...     .71.. 

These  figures  show  a  possib 


Maximum 

90.69. 
6.47. 
4.23. 
1.44. 
6.03. 
1.21. 


Minimum 

...80.32 
1.67 
1.79 

.25 
2.11 

.35 


lity  of  some  supposedly  nor- 


mal milk  containing  about  three  and  one  half  times  the 
amount  of  solids  not  fat  contained  in  other  milk  and  nearly 
four  times  the  amount  of  fat.  Mixed  milk  of  a  herd  usually 
ranges  between  three  and  five  and  one  half  per  cent  fat. 

Fat  Percentages.  The  percentage  of  fat  is  a  trifle  higher 
during  the  first  three  or  four  weeks  of  the  lactation  period. 
After  this  time  it  remains  fairly  constant,  except  for  irregular 
variations,  till  the  seventh  or  eighth  month.  At  this  time 
the  quantity  of  milk  rapidly  decreases  and  there  is  a  tendency 
for  the  proportion  of  fat  to  increase. 

The  first  milk  may  show  even  less  than  one  per  cent  fat, 
while  the  last  milk  of  the  same  milking  may  show  as  high 
as  ten  per  cent  fat.  Contrary  to  popular  belief,  where  cows 
are  fed  anything  like  sufficient  rations,  feed  has  little  or  no 
influence  upon  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk.  The  age  of 
the  cow  seems  to  have  fittle  or  no  influence  upon  the  rich- 
ness of  the  milk  in  fat.  The  breed  and  individuality  of  the 
cow  are  the  two  chief  factors  governing  the  fat  content  of 
milk.  The  following  figures  give  the  relative  fat  content 
of  various  dairy  breeds  of  cows,  as  reported  by  Eckles : 

Jersey 5.14  Ayrshire. 3.85 

Guernsey 4.98  Holstein-Friesian . . .  .3.45 

It  is  well  known  that  within  the  same  breed  variations 

occur  as  great  as  the  averages  found  between  any  two  breeds. 


390 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  178. — A  four-bottle  hand-driven 
Babcock  milk  tester. 


Jerseys  are  known  giving  as 
low  as  four  per  cent  milk  and 
others  as  high  as  six  and  one 
half  per  cent. 

Variations  in  the  composi- 
tion of  fat,  that  is,  a  hard  or 
soft  fat,  a  yellow  or  light  fat, 
large  or  small  fat  globules,  and 
flavor  of  fat,  occur  as  a  result 
of  breed,  individuahty,  feed, 
and  period  of  lactation. 
Milk  Testing.  On  account  of  the  variation  in  composi- 
tion of  milk  and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  adulterated, 
it  is  necessary,  as  a  protection  to  those  purchasing  milk,  to 
•have  some  means  of  determining  the  percentage  of  the  vari- 
ous ingredients.  Especially  is  this  true  of  fat,  as  fat  is  so 
easily  separated  from  the  milk.  For  exact  work  well-known 
chemical  methods  are  used.  Many  devices  have  been  tried 
to  determine  quickly  and  conveniently  the  per  cent  of  fat 
in  milk.  The  one  now  almost  universally  used  in  the  United 
States  in  commercial  work  and  the  only  one  which  can  be 
discussed  here  is  the  so-called  Babcock  test.  With  the 
necessary  equipment 
and  supplies  at  hand  a 
Babcock  test  for  fat  can 
be  made  in  about  ten 
minutes.  The  test,  if 
carefully  made,  is  accu- 
rate to  about  one  tenth 
of  one  per  cent. 

Babcock  Test.    The 
equipment    needed   for 
a  Babcock  test  is: 
1 — A  testing  machine. 

2T«of    K^ffloo  Figure  179. — Babcock  milk  tester,  enclosed  and 

i  est   Domes.  driven  by  a  steam  turbine  or  by  electricity. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  391 

Milk  bottles  graduated  to  10%  in  0.2  of  a  per  cent. 
Cream  bottles  graduated  to  50%  in  0.5  of  a  per  cent. 
Double-necked  skim  milk  bottles  graduated  to  0.5% 

in  hundredths  of  a  per  cent. 

3 — ^A  milk  pipette  having  a  capacity  of  17.6  c.  c. 

4 — An  acid  measure  having  a  capacity  of  17.5  c.  c. 

5 — A  pair  of  dividers. 

6 — Concentrated  commercial  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  directions  apply  to  testing  whole  milk, 
skim  milk  and  buttermilk.  Cream  is  tested  in  the  same  way 
except  that  eighteen  grams  are  weighed  into  the  test  bottle 
instead  of  being  measured.  In  testing  the  richer  creams 
(above  30  per  cent)  nine  grams  may  be  taken  and  the  reading 
obtained  doubled.  In  reading  the  test  amyl  alcohol  or  some 
other  substance  is  placed  on  the  fat  column  to  destroy  the 
meniscus.  With  the  richer  creams  the  reading  may  be  taken 
from  both  extremes  of  the  fat  column  and  the  reading 
decreased  by  one  per  cent. 

Properly  label  the  required  number  of  test  bottles. 
Thoroughly  mix  the  sample  of  milk  to  be. tested.  A  small 
round  brush  with  stiff  bristles  is  convenient  for  this  purpose, 
as  with  this  the  cream  which  may  have  adhered  to  the  sides 
of  the  sample  jar  can  be  removed  and  incorporated  in  the 
sample.  As  soon  as  the  sample  is  well  mixed  fill  the  pipette 
exactly  to  the  17.6  c.c.  mark  and  transfer  this  amount  of 
milk  into  the  proper  test  bottle.  If  the  point  of  the  pipette 
can  be  introduced  down  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle  so  that 
the  tip  reaches  the  body  of  the  bottle  the  milk  can  safely  be 
introduced  in  this  manner.  Otherwise  place  the  point  of 
the  pipette  in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  neck,  hold  the  two  at 
an  angle  to  each  other,  and  let  the  milk  run  slowly  from  the 
pipette.  If  a  drop  of  the  measured  sample  is  lost  another 
sample  should  be  measured  into  a  clean  bottle.  The  last 
drop  or  two  of  milk  may  be  removed  from  the  pipette  by 
gently  blowing  through  it  while  its  end  is  still  in  the  bottle. 


392 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Run  all  tests  in  duplicate.  That  is,  measure 
out  two  test  bottles  of  milk  from  each  sample. 
When  the  test  is  completed  the  reading  of  the  two 
bottles  should  not  differ  more  than 
0.2  per  cent.  If  a  greater  difference 
than  this  is  found,  the  test  should  be 
carefully  repeated. 

Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  mark 
(17.5  c.c.)  and  carefully  pour  the  acid 
into  the  bottle.       Revolve 
the  bottle  slowly  as  the  acid 
runs  in  so  as  to  remove  any 
milk  or  cream  that 
may    be    clinging 
there.     Mix  the 
contents   thor- 
oughly   by    care- 
fully shaking  the 
bottle  in  a  rotary 
motion.      This 
should  be  contin- 
ued  till  the  curd 
has   been  com- 
pletely   dissolved 
as  shown    by  the 
resulting    mix- 
ture's assuming  a  brownish  black  color.     The  shaking  should 
be  gentle  to  avoid  slopping  into  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Put  the  bottles  at  once  into  the  machine.  Arrange  them 
opposite  each  other  to  insure  a  proper  balance  and,  therefore, 
smooth  running  of  the  machine.  Whirl  at  the  speed  indi- 
cated on  the  tester  which  is  usually  from  80  to  100  turns  per 
minute  with  hand  machines.  The  first  whirling  should  con- 
tinue for  five  minutes.  Stop  the  machine  gradually  and  add 
hot  water  (about  150°  F.)  to  the  bottles  with  a  clean  pipette 


Figure  180. — Apparatus  used  in  sampling  and  testing  milk : 

A,  Pipette;  E,  Milk  thief  for  sampling;  D,  Dividers; 

B,  Test  bottle  for  niilk;  C,  Acid  measure. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


393 


^L\> 


till  each  is  full  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  Whirl  again  for 
two  minutes,  stop  as  before,  add  sufficient  hot  water  to  bring 
the  fat  column  well  within  the  graduations  on  the  neck  of  the 

bottle,  and  whirl  for  one  minute 
more.  Care  must  be  exercised  in 
adding  this  last  water  not  to  over- 
fill the  neck  and  thus  lose  some  of 
the  fat. 

When  the  test  is  completed 
remove  the  bottles  from  the  ma- 
chine and  stand  them  in  a  vessel 
of  warm  water  deep  enough  to  cov- 
er them  well  up  on  the  necks.  The 
water  should  be  kept  at  about 
140°F. 

The  reading  is  best  taken  by 
means  of  dividers.  Place  one  point 
of  the  dividers  at  the  extreme  bot- 
tom of  the  fat  column  and  then 
spread  them  till  the  other  point 
reaches  the  extreme  top.  (Fig.  181,  ''a.")  With  the  dividers 
spread  to  exactly  this  degree,  place  one  of  their  points  on 
the  zero  mark.  The  mark  up  the  neck  where  the  other  point 
falls  gives  the  reading  of  the  test.     (Fig.  181,  ''b.") 

Cream  Separation.  Cream  is  defined  as  ''that  part  of 
milk  into  which  a  large  portion  of  fat  has  been  gathered.'* 
Cream  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  part  of  milk,  as  it  is  from 
this  that  butter,  the  chief  product,  is  made. 

Separating  the  cream  was  first  accomplished  by  the  shal- 
low-pan and  the  deep-setting  systems.  In  the  former,  the 
milk  was  allowed  to  stand  in  shallow  pans,  and  in  the  latter 
in  deep  vessels  till  the  cream  came  to  the  surface.  With 
these  systems  there  is  considerable  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim 
milk,  amounting  to  from  five  to  forty  per  cent  of  the  total 
fat  of  average  milk.     This  great  loss  of  fat,  together  with  the 


Figure  181. — Method  of  meas- 
uring the  fat  column  (poai- 
tion  a)  and  of  reading  the 
test  (position  b)  in  making 
a  Babcock  test. 


394 


WESTERN  AORICULTURE 


long  time  and  the  vessels  and  space  necessary  for  the  satis- 
factory operation  of  these  methods,  makes  them  very  unpro- 
fitable when  working  on  a  commercial  basis. 

The  Cream  Separator. 
Most  of  the  difficulties  and 
losses  of  the  old  systems  were 
overcome  by  the  invention  and 
perfection  of  the  centrifugal 
machine  separator.  Separa- 
tion of  the  cream  in  these  ma- 
chines is  accomplished  by  the 
application  of  centrifugal  force 
in  a  horizontal  plane,  in  place 
of  the  force  of  gravity  utilized 
in  the  shallow-pan  or  the  deepn 
setting  systems.  There  are  a 
great  many  different  makes  of 
separators  on  the  market,  but 
they  all  operate  on  the  same 
principle.  The  essential  parts 
of  all  separators  are  the  bowl, 
an  inlet  for  whole  milk,  and  an  outlet  for  skim  milk  and  one 
for  cream,  and  some  device  for  revolving  the  bowl  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed. 

Butter  Making.  Cream  is  usually  soured  before  it  is 
churned.  It  will  sour  if  allowed  to  stand  in  an  open  vessel 
in  a  warm  place.  It  is  better  to  add  an  artificial  starter  or 
some  buttermilk  of  good  flavor  saved  from  the.  last  churn- 
ing. Butter  may  be  made  from  sweet  cream,  but  more 
butter-fat  is  lost  in  the  buttermilk  than  when  the  cream  is 
ripened.  Sweet  cream  butter  also  has  a  different  flavor  to 
which  the  market  would  have  to  become  accustomed. 

Churning  is  ])est  done  in  a  revolving  churn  in  which  the 
agitation  is  produced  by  the  cream's  falling  upon  itself  and 
against  the  sides  of  the  churn  instead  of  by  paddles  or  dashes. 


Figure  182. — A  cream  separator 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


395 


The  proper  temperature  for  churning  depends  somewhat  upon 
the  nature  of  the  cream.  Between  56°  and  65°  F.  will  be 
found  satisfactory  under  most  conditions.  The  higher  tem- 
perature is  necessary  in  the  winter.     If  the  cream  is  the 

proper  temperature, 
churning  will  occupy 
from  twenty  to  forty- 
five  minutes.  When 
the  cream  "breaks"  and 
the  butter  granules 
reach  about  the  size  of 
a  pea,  the  churn  should 
be  stopped  and  the 
buttermilk  drawn  off. 
Washing.  After  the 
buttermilk  is  thorough- 
ly drained  off,  clean 
water  about  the  same 
temperature  as  the  but- 
termilk should  be  add- 
ed and  then  the  churn  given  one  or  two  turns.  This  water 
should  then  be  drawn  and  more  added.  The  second  water 
should  show  no  more  than  a  slight  milkiness  when  drawn. 
If  it  does,  a  third  washing  should  be  given. 

Working.  The  amount  of  salt  to  add  will  vary  to  suit 
the  taste  of  the  consumer.  Three  quarters  of  an  ounce  to 
one  ounce  per  pound  is  the  usual  amount.  Butter  is  worked 
merely  to  insure  an  even  distribution  of  the  salt,  expel  the 
surplus  water,  and  bring  it  into  a  compact  form  for  handling. 
After  these  objects  are  accomplished,  any  further  working 
will  only  injure  the  texture  of  the  butter. 

Moulding  and  Packing.  Most  butter  for  short  shipment 
and  immediate  consumption  is  put  in  pound  prints  45^x2J^ 
x2%  inches,  wrapped  in  parchment  paper,  and  sometimes 
enclosed  in  cardboard  cartons.     This  is  by  far  the  most 


Figure  183. — Upright  cheese  press,  showing  one 
drop  in  place. 


396  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

desirable  way  of  marketing  butter,  as  it  reaches  the  con- 
sumer in  a  clean,  unopened  package.  It  is  sometimes  packed 
in  ash  tubs  of  various  sizes. 

Cheese  Making.  In  the  process  of  cheese  making  most 
of  the  soHds  of  milk  are  collected  in  the  product.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  casein  and  fat.  A  large  part  of  the 
ash  is  also  retained,  though  practically  all  the  sugar  is  lost 
in  the  whey.  Cheese  consists  of  about  equal  parts  of  water, 
casein,  and  fat.  The  milk  solids  are  collected  by  rendering 
the  casein  insoluble  by  coagulating  or  curdling  it  with  ren- 
net. As  the  casein  sets  it  holds  in  its  meshes  the  tiny  glob- 
ules of  fat  suspended  in  the  milk. 

There  are  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  cheese,  the 
differences  between  them  being  produced  chiefly  by  the  pro- 
cess of  ripening  and  by  the  kind  of  milk  used.  Only  the 
ordinary,  or  cheddar,  cheese  can  be  discussed  here.  The 
processes  involved  in  making  this  cheese  may  be  grouped 
into  eight  periods. 

Period  I.,  Setting.  The  milk  is  gradua41y  warmed  up  to 
82°-86°F.  and  kept  at  this  temperature  until  sufficient  lactic 
acid  has  developed  (0.19-0.21  per  cent).  When  sour  enough, 
two  to  three  fluid  ounces  of  rennet  diluted  in  fifty  times  its 
volume  of  cold  water  are  added  for  each  thousand  pounds 
of  milk.  This  is  quickly  and  uniformly  stirred  into  the  milk. 
After  about  thirty  minutes  the  curd  is  firm  enough  for  the 
next  step. 

Period  II.,  Cutting.  The  curd  is  cut  so  the  whey  will  run 
off  more  readily  and  completely.  Cutting  is  best  done  by 
gangs  of  steel  knives — one  set  of  horizontal  and  one  of 
vertical  knives.  See  Fig.  184.  The  horizontal  knives  are 
run  lengthwise  of  the  vat,  cutting  the  curd  in  thin  layers. 
The  vertical  knives  are  then  run  both  lengthwise  and  cross- 
wise of  the  vat,  leaving  the  curd  cut  in  cubes  about  ^  inch 
in  diameter.  As  soon  as  cut  the  curd  is  gently  agitated  till 
the  surfaces  ''heal"  so  the  cul)es  will  not  adhere. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


397 


9 


Period  III.,  Heating.  The  cubes  of  curd  are  heated  with 
constant  stirring  in  the  whey  to  make  them  contract  and 
force  out  the  water.  Heating  should  be  slow,  the  tempera- 
ture rising  not  more  than  2°  in  each  five  minutes.     When  a 

temperature  of  94°-102°F. 
is  reached  it  is  held  at  this 
point  till  about  0.16-0.20 
per  cent  acid  is  present  in 
the  whey  and  a  test  shows 
the  curd  to  be  ready  for 
the  next  step. 

Period  IV.,  Cheddar ing. 
This  step   causes    more 
whey   to  escape  and  the 
curd  to  change  from  its 
original  tough  spongy  con- 
dition to  a  smooth,  elastic, 
fibrous  mass.     All  the 
whey  is  allowed  to  drain 
from  the  vat  and  the  cubes 
of  curd  mat   together. 
This  mass  is  cut  in  blocks 
about    8x8x12    inches 
and  piled   first   two   deep   then  later  four   and   five  deep 
with  constant  turning  and  restacking.     The  temperature 
is  kept  above  90°F. 

Period  V.,  Grinding.  The  blocks  of  curd  are  ground  to 
cut  them  up  into  particles  small  enough  to  take  salt  readily 
and  to  be  pressed  into  a  solid  mass.  This  process  also  helps 
to  expel  any  disagreeable  odors  present.  The  curd  is  cut 
by  running  it  through  a  curd  mill  of  one  kind  or  another. 
Period  VI.,  Salting.  Addition  of  salt  makes  the  curd  drier 
and  harder,  and  checks  the  development  of  lactic  acid  which 
has  been  going  on  up  to  this  point.  Salt  is  added  chiefly, 
however,  to  improve  the  flavor  of  cheese.     After  the  curd 


^^drliirm^ 

j                  i  Y    1. 

Horizontal 


Perpendicular 


Figure    184. — Curd    knives    used    in   cheese 
making. 


398 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


is  milled  it  is  spread  out  thin  at  a  temperature  not  below 
90°F.  and  one  and  one  half  to  three  pounds  of  fairly  coarse 
salt  are  added  for  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  curd. 

Period  VII.,  Pressing.  Spreading  the  curd  for  salting  cools 
it  off.  When  it  reaches  78°-82°F.  it  should  be  put  in  the  press. 
This  removes  any  surplus  water  and  causes  the  particles  to 


Figure  185. — Cheese  press,  showing  a  gang  of  hoops  in  place. 

adhere  into  a  uniform  mass  of  convenient  size  and  shape  for 
handling.  The  pressure  should  be  uniform,  not  great 
enough  to  expel  the  fat,  and  should  be  continued  at  least 
twenty-four  hours. 

After  the  cheese  has  been  in  the  press  forty-five  to  sixty 
minutes  it  should  be  taken  out,  turned,  the  bandage  and 
caps  straightened,  and  the  whole  surface  sponged  off  with  a 
cloth  wrung  from  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  stand. 

Period  VIII.,  Curing.  Cheese  is  allowed  to  cure  in  order 
to  develop  the  desired  flavor  and  to  become  more  digestible. 
Upon  being  taken  out  of  the  press  the  cheese  is  placed  in  a 
clean  dark  room  having  a  uniform  temperature  of  65°-70°F. 
Each  cheese  should  be  turned  over  on  the  shelves  every  day 
during  the  early  stages  of  curing.  After  five  to  seven  days 
in  the  curing  room  the  cheese  is  removed  and  dipped  in  a 
vat  of  molten  paraffin.  A  thin  film  of  this  solidifies  all  over 
the  cheese  and  prevents  loss  of  moisture.  In  four  to  six 
weeks  cheese  is  fairly  well  cured,  though  it  continues  to  im- 
prove for  three  or  four  months. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  399 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  milk? 

2.  What  are  the  two  chief  factors  which  stimulate  milk  secretion? 

3.  Name  six  factors  which  influence  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk 

and  show  the  effect  of  each. 

4.  What  makes  possible  the  testing  of  milk  by  the  Babcock  method? 

5.  Why  is  it  possible  to  separate  cream  from  milk? 

6.  Upon  what  principle  does  the  mechanical  separation  of  cream 

depend? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  ripening  cream?     Of  what  value  is  it  in  butter 

making? 

8.  What  constituents  of  milk  are  found  in  cheese  which  do  not  occur 

to  any  extent  in  butter? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Determine  the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk,  cream,  skim  milk  and 

buttermilk.  Use  the  Babcock  testing  outfit  and  samples.  Fol- 
low directions  given  in  the  text,  page -390. 

2.  Use  a  cream  separator,  milk,  and  pails.     Weigh  a  batch  of  milk, 

sample  and  test,  compute  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  milk,  then 
run  it  through  the  separator  at  the  temperature  and  speed 
recommended  for  that  particular  machine.  When  the  last  of 
the  milk  has  run  in,  flush  out  the  bowl  with  a  quart  of  warm 
water.  Weigh  and  test  the  cream  and  skim  milk  and  compute 
the  amount  of  butter-fat  recovered. 

3.  Test  the  effect  of  speed  of  the  separator  upon  completeness  of 

separation  and  upon  the  amount  and  thickness  of  the  cream. 
Use  a  cream  separator,  milk,  and  pails.  Warm  a  batch  of  milk 
(about  three  pailfuls)  up  to  80°  F.  Weigh  out  one  pailful  and 
run  it  through  the  machine  at  the  recommended  speed.  Run 
another  pailful  through  at  5  turns  per  minute  faster  than  the 
recommended  speed  and  the  last  pailful  at  5  turns  per  minute 
slower  than  the  recommended  speed.  Flush  the  bowl  each 
time  with  one  quart  of  warm  water.  Weigh  and  test  the  skim 
milk  and  cream  from  each  separation  and  note  any  variations 
in  amount  or  in  fat  content  of  the  cream  or  skim  milk  which 
can  be  attributed  to  the  different  speeds. 

4.  Test  the  effect  of  temperature  of  the  milk  upon  completeness  of 

separation  and  upon  the  amount  and  the  fat  content  of  the 
skim  milk  and  cream.  Use  a  cream  separator,  milk  and  pails. 
Weigh,  sample,  and  test  three  pails  of  milk.    Warm  one  to  65°  F., 


400  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

another  to  80°  F.,  and  a  third  to  90°  F.  Run  each  through 
the  separator  at  the  speed  recommended  for  the  machine  in  use. 
Weigh,  sample,  and  test  the  cream  and  skim  milk  from  each. 
With  the  same  speed,  what  effect  had  the  change  in  tempera- 
ture on  the  points  mentioned  in  the  object  of  this  exercise? 

Note:  Because  of  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  body  of  the  cream  it  is 
advisable  to  separate  milk  at  the  lowest  temperature  con- 
sistent with  complete  separation. 
5.  Test  the  keeping  quality  of  milk  under  different  conditions. 
Secure  milk,  test  tubes  plugged  with  cotton  or  small  bottles, 
and  a  thermometer.  Take  the  milk  as  soon  as  drawn  and 
while  still  warm.  Place  samples  of  the  fresh  milk  in  three 
test  tubes  or  bottles.  Cover  and  leave  one  sample  at  the 
ordinary  room  temperature,  another  in  running  cold  water  and 
the  third  in  ice  water.  Take  the  temperature  of  the  water  in 
both  cases  and  record  the  temperature  of  the  room.  Note  the 
length  of  time  required  for  each  sample  to  coagulate. 
What  effect  has  cooling  milk  on  its  keeping  qualities? 

Note:     If  equipment  is  available,  exercises  in  churning  and  cheese 
making  can  easily  be  outlined  by  the  instructor. 

REFERENCES 

Milk  and  Its  Products,  Wing. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  Eckles. 

Milk :  Its  Nature  and  Composition,  Aikman. 

Dairy  Chemistry,  Snyder. 

Dairy  Chemistry,  Richmond. 

The  Science  and  Practice  of  Cheese-Making,  Publow. 

Modern  Methods  of  Testing  of  Milk  and  Its  Products,  Van  Slyke. 

The  City  Milk  Supply,  Parker. 

Milk  and  the  Public  Health,  Roseneau. 

Dairy  Technology,  Larsen  and  White. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-Making,  McKay  and  Larsen. 

The  Manufacture  of  Ice  Creams  and  Ices,  Frandson  and  Markham. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  363.     The  Use  of  Milk  as  Food. 

487.     Cheese  and  Its  Economical  Uses  in  the  Diet. 

490.     Bacteria  in  Milk. 

602.     Clean  Milk:  Production  and  Handling. 

850.     How  to  Make  Cottage  Cheese  on  the  F'arm. 

876.     Making  Butter  on  the  Fann. 

26— 


CHAPTER  XLVI 
DWELLING  HOUSES. 

The  home  scenes  with  which  we  are  surrounded  not  only 
afford  our  enjoyment  of  their  beauty  as  they  appeal  to  us 
through  sight,  but  go  deeper  and  affect  our  habits  and 
characters  as  well.  While  many  estimable  men  and  women 
have  developed  amid  the  crudest  surroundings,  yet  it  never- 
theless remains  true  that  beautiful  and  comfortable  homes 
do  tend  to  beget  contentment  of  mind  and  refinement  of 
spirit,  and  to  satisfy  a  part  of  our  nature  as  nothing  else  can. 

Cost  of  House.  In  the  planning  of  farm  homes  as  well 
as  in  the  barns,  a  proper  balance  should  be  maintained 
between  the  size  of  the  farm  and  the  amount  invested  in  the 
buildings.  The  statistics  for  the  United  States  show  that 
the  larger  farms  have  better  buildings  but  at  a  less  propor- 
tionate cost.  The  farms  of  less  than  twenty  acres  have  over 
one  third  of  the  capital  invested  in  buildings  and  machinery. 
Those  of  over  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  acres  have  less 
than  one  fifth  in  farm  buildings.  Money  thus  invested  is 
not  only  unproductive  but  is  a  source  of  constant  cost  for 
repairs. 

Planning  the  House.  Farm  homes,  like  city  homes,  are 
built  under  varied  conditions.  It  is  easy  to  build  an  expen- 
sive and  convenient  home  if  one  has  all  of  the  money  needed, 
but  the  difficult  task,  and  the  task  which  has  to  be  solved 
by  the  majority  of  farmers  as  well  as  city  folks,  is  to  build 
a  modern  home  of  sufficient  size  with  the  means  at  hand. 
Here  is  where  a  good  architect  can  be  of  great  service;  for, 
although  you  may  have  had  experience  in  planning,  yet  after 
you  have  it  all  worked  out,  when  bids  are  called  for,  you 
will  generally  find  that  the  cost  is  double  what  you  have  to 

401 


402 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


spend.  The  collection  of  ideas  and  features  relating  to  the 
house  so  that  the  structure,  when  finished,  may  be  a  home 
to  suit  the  requirements  is  the  part  to  be  worked  out  by  the 
owner,  but  the  general  style  and  material  to  be  employed 
should  be  the  work  of  the  architect. 

One  author  who  is  often  quoted  on  this  subject  has  said, 
"Few  persons  believe  that  they  have  no  right  to  build  until 


Figure  186. — A  pleasing  outlook  from  the  farm  home. 


professional  help  can  be  afforded;  yet  such  a  position  would 
be  well  taken.  Houses  stand  not  for  a  month  nor  for  a 
year,  but  for  a  generation.  By  them  the  thrift  of  a  com- 
munity is  judged.  By  them  the  ideals  and  taste  of  a  com- 
munity are  formed.  He  who  deliberately  builds  an  ugly 
house  condemns  himself  as  a  poor  citizen;  while  he  who 
builds  a  beautiful  house  proves  himself  a  good  citizen ;  for 
his  personal  effort  contributed  to  the  public  welfare." 

A  great  deal  of  time  and  careful  thought  should  be  given 
to  the  planning.  Other  homes  should  be  visited  and  the 
good  points  noted  and  copied.    The  best  architects  copy. 


DWELLING  HOUSES  403 

While  in  many  respects  the  country  home  does  not  differ 
from  the  city  residence,  yet  it  is  a  mistake  to  copy  exactly 
the  houses  of  the  city.  The  architectural  possibilities  of 
the  country  are  much  greater,  and  give  the  architect  an 
opportunity  to  harmonize  his  design  with  the  surroundings. 

Location.  On  rather  large  farms  it  is  often  economy  of 
time  to  place  the  house  off  the  highway  and  about  in  the 
center  of  the  farm.  Where  this  is  done,  the  house  may  be 
faced  in  the  direction  which  affords  the  best  view.  The 
question  of  economy,  however,  is  often  outweighed  by  the 
fact  that  country  life  consists  of  too  much  seclusion  and 
that  it  is  necessary  for  proper  development  to  be  on  the 
highway  where  one  may  keep  in  touch  with  his  neighbors 
and  with  what  is  going  on  about  him. 

Exposure.  The  majority  of  persons  prefer  either  a  south 
or  an  east  exposure.  This  seems  to  afford  the  best  arrange- 
ment for  sunshine. 

Arrangement  of  Rooms.  As  mentioned  above,  a  great 
deal  of  care  and  thought  should  be  exercised  in  working 
out  the  floor  plan,  for  it  is  very  easy  to  get  rooms  entirely 
out  of  proportion  for  the  use  that  is  made  of  them;  and 
these  things  are  very  difficult  to  remedy.  You  may  see  the 
rooms  drawn  on  paper  with  dimensions  and  yet  be  very 
much  misled  unless  you  measure  out  each  room  and  com- 
pare it  with  a  room  that  you  are  now  using.  Doing  so  always 
prevents  wrong  impressions  as  to  size. 

The  rooms  which  will  be  used  most,  the  living  and  dining 
rooms,  should  be  placed  where  they  will  get  plenty  of  light 
and  sunshine,  and,  if  possible,  an  attractive  outlook.  Avoid 
placing  stairways  and  halls  on  the  side  of  the  house,  which 
arrangement  would  cut  off  the  sunshine.  A  south  and  west 
exposure  for  the  kitchen  is  entirely  too  warm.  Any  other 
corner  is  preferable. 

Conveniences.  A  basement  should  be  provided  for  a 
laundry,   coal  room  and  storage  purposes.     For  country 


404 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Figure  187. — Farm  coDveniences;     1,  pan  cupboard;  2,  dumb  waiter;  3,  dish- 
washer; 4,  wood  box  attachment. 


DWELLING  HOUSES  405 

homes,  a  bathroom  is  more  of  a  necessity  than  in  the  city. 
Water  systems  under  pressure  have  been  developed  to  the 
point  where  rural  residences  cannot  afford  to  be  without 
them.  They  provide  running  water  for  kitchen,  bath,  and 
laundry  rooms. 

Probably  the  two  special  things  that  should  be  remem- 
bered in  planning  a  home  for  the  farm,  contrasted  with  one 
in  the  city,  are  the  necessity  for  a  small  office,  where  the 
accounts  are  carefully  kept,  and  the  business  transacted, 
and  a  washroom  which  should  be  placed  in  the  rear  of  the 
house,  and  probably  opening  to  the  dining  room. 

What  Rooms  to  Have.  The  advisabihty  of  a  pantry  is 
a  disputed  question,  but  it  more  properly  belongs  to  the 
farm  house  than  to  the  city  residence.  The  kitchen  should 
be  smaller  than  those  usually  constructed  for  farm  houses, 
probably  about  12'  x  12';  but  the  dining  room  should  be 
quite  large  so  that  in  very  cold  weather  it  might  save  heat- 
ing the  living  room. 

There  should  be  at  least  one  large  bedroom.  The  others 
may  be  smaller,  and  in  number  corresponding  to  the  needs 
of  the  family.  The  arrangement  of  the  windows  to  afford 
proper  ventilation  is  important. 

The  living  room  has  superseded  the  parlor,  and  seems  to 
make  available  for  economic  use  the  space  heretofore  set 
apart  for  special  occasions.  The  room  should  be  large  and 
cheerful,  and,  if  within  the  means,  a  fireplace  should  be  pro- 
vided, since  it  adds  wonderfully  to  the  cheerfulness. 

Lighting.  Individual  electric  lighting  systems  which  are 
very  successful  have  been  developed  on  low  voltage  for  farm 
homes.  The  latest  storage  batteries  allow  some  of  the  electric- 
ity to  be  stored  up  while  the  engine  is  being  used  for  other  pur- 
poses. In  this  way  enough  can  be  stored  so  that  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  have  the  engine  running  all  the  time  the  lights  are  on. 

Wherever  possible  the  farm  home  should  be  connected 
with  company  lines  furnishing  light.     These  demand  less 


406  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

capital  and  are  usually  better  than  small  private  plants. 
Proper  attention  to  windows  helps  much  in  evenings  and 
mornings. 

Heating.  While  stoves  will  be  used  for  sometime  yet  in 
most  farm  homes,  it  is  just  a  matter  of  time  till  they  will  be 
replaced  by  the  hot  air  furnace  or  the  hot  water  system. 
Both  systems  are  satisfactory,  but  the  former  costs  only 
about  one  half  as  much  as  the  latter.  The  hot  water  furnace 
requires  a  little  less  fuel. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  expensive  ought  farm  houses  to  be? 

2.  State  the  chief  considerations  with  regard  to  planning  the  house. 

3.  Where  should  the  house  be  located? 

4.  Discuss  room  arrangement. 

5.  What  conveniences  are  considered  essential? 

6.  Give  the  main  points  in  hghting. 

7.  What  kinds  of  heating  are  worth  considering? 

8.  Summarize  the  desirable  qualities  of  a  farm  house. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  two  or  three  well-arranged  houses.     Note  the  arrangement 

of  room  and  the  conveniences. 

2.  List  improvements  that  could  be  easily  made  in  your  own  home. 

3.  Collect  pictures. 

REFERENCES. 

The  Farmstead,  Roberts. 
Farm  Management,  Warren. 
Farm  Management,  Boss. 
Farmers'  Bulletin: 

607.     Farm  Kitchen  as  a  Workshop. 

927.    Farm  Home  Conveniences. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 
FARM  BUILDINGS 

Farm  buildings,  as  a  rule,  have  received  very  little  thought 
in  the  past  as  regards  their  proper  location,  construction, 
and  the  convenience  that  might  be  afforded  by  a  little  more 
careful  planning.  L.  H.  Bailey  says:  'The  buildings  surely 
express  the  man;  you  know  something  of  his  type  of  mind 
when  you  see  his  house  and  barns  and  sheds.  Awkward, 
straggling,  unrelated  buildings  indicate  loose  and  purpose- 
less ways  of  thinking.  Good  farming  follows  only  good 
mental  processes;  these  processes  work  themselves  out  in 
the  crop  schemes,  the  market  business,  the  buildings.  Rarely 
do  you  see  efficient  and  convenient  buildings  without  seeing 
also  a  good  farmer;  and  efficient  and  convenient  buildings 
are  almost  necessarily  tasteful  buildings." 

Layout.  Not  only  the  buildings  themselves  but  the  dis- 
position and  arrangement  of  them  have  relation  to  their  effi- 
ciency and  tastef  ulness.  It  is  unquestionably  true  that  there 
has  been  a  tendency  to  scatter  the  buildings,  particularly  the 
barns,  far  beyond  the  point  of  efficiency  and  convenience. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  make  a  computation  as  to  how 
much  time  and  labor  are  wasted  each  year  in  doing  chores  in 
separated  buildings.     Management  concentrates  activities. 

Some  of  the  principles  governing  their  proper  location  are 
as  follows:  As  a  rule,  the  buildings  should  be  placed  on 
high  ground;  but,  if  this  is  not  available,  they  should  be 
placed  on  soil  that  will  drain  well.  They  should  occupy 
about  the  center  of  the  farm,  as  near  as  possible  to  save  time 
in  getting  to  and  from  work.  Should  there  be  a  piece  of 
rocky  land  or  waste  land  that  will  not  grow  a  crop,  filling 
the  above  requirements,  such  should  be  chosen  in  the  interest 
of  economy;  and  usually  such  can  be  found. 

407 


408  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

The  outbuildings  should  be  near  enough  to  the  house 
that  accident  which  might  occur  at  night  or  while  the  men 
are  away  from  the  barns  may  be  detected  readily.  Many 
accidents  which  might  have  resulted  seriously  have  been 
prevented  in  this  way. 

Site.  A  southwest  slope  is  desirable;  the  buildings  should 
be  placed  on  the  side  of  the  farm  nearest  the  town;  they 
should  be  not  less  than  two  hundred  feet  from  the  highway; 
and  the  house  should  be  not  less  than  two  hundred  feet 
from  the  barn  and  not  in  the  leeward  of  the  prevailing 
winds.     Corrals  should  be  on  the  farther  side  of  the  barn. 

Farmsteads  are  laid  out  by  two  plans:  (1)  the  one  involv- 
ing separate  barns  for  the  cows  and  horses,  known  as  the 
distributed  system,  and  (2)  the  concentrated  system,  where  both 
are  housed  under  the  same  roof.  There  are  advantages  and 
disadvantages  in  both.  The  former  usually  requires  the 
greater  outlay,  and  hence  is  less  often  used.  The  latter 
system  is  the  one  common  in  the  West. 

Under  the  concentrated  system  the  farmer  has  a  more 
imposing  structure.  There  is  a  saving  in  labor,  but  in  case 
of  fire  there  is  usually  a  greater  loss. 

Bams.  In  this  region,  the  barns  are  usually  constructed 
to  accommodate  horses  and  cows.  Where  this  is  done  a 
substantial  gate  should  separate  the  two  sections. 

The  stock  may  be  faced  in  or  out,  there  being  advantages 
and  disadvantages  to  both  methods.  Stalls  placed  so  that 
the  animals  face  in  are  more  convenient  in  feeding  because 
hay  thrown  into  an  alley  is  near  the  heads  of  the  animals. 
Ventilation  is  more  effective.  In  facing  out,  the  advantages 
are:  (1)  ease  in  removing  the  litter,  (2)  ease  in  milking,  and 
(3)  ease  in  handling  the  cows.  Facing  in  is  probably  more 
often  used. 

A  good,  serviceable  barn  of  tliis  type  is  one  built  with  a 
central  position  for  hay,  and  a  lean-to  on  either  side.  One 
side  is  thus  used  for  cows  and  the  other  for  horses. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


409 


In  cattle  barns  the  height  of  ceiUng  should  be  not  to 
exceed  nine  feet.  Stalls  should  be  three  feet  six  inches  wide, 
mangers  two  feet  four  inches  wide,  gutters  sixteen  inches 
wide  and  six  inches  deep  and  should  lead  to  manure  pit  in 
order  that  the  liquid  portions  of  the  manure  may  be  saved. 


Figure  188. — A  dairy  cow  and  horse  barn  with  double  silo. 


Litter  and  feed  carriers  are  a  great  convenience,  allowing 
the  feed  to  be  carried  easily  to  each  stall,  and  the  litter  to 
be  removed  just  as  conveniently. 

Bam  Fixtures.  In  the  stalls  of  the  modern  dairy  barn, 
wood  is  being  rapidly  replaced  by  concrete,  iron  netting,  and 
piping,  because  they  are  much  more  sanitary.  The  up-to- 
date  stanchion  now  proves  satisfactory  in  every  way.  It 
is  used  entirely  in  the  modern  barn.  Concrete  floors  for 
the  cow  barns  are  satisfactory  and  sanitary,  but  should  be 
given  a  rough  finish  to  prevent  the  animals  from  slipping. 
They  are  regarded  by  some  as  cold  in  winter.  This  defect 
can  be  relieved  by  using  a  temporary  wooden  floor  in  winter 
which  can  be  removed  during  the  summer  and  while  clean- 
ing in  winter. 

In  the  horse  barn  concrete  is  not  so  satisfactory,  but  is 
often  used  in  the  back  part  of  the  stall  with  clay  under  the 
front  feet.     Clay  or  wood  floors  are  better. 


410  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Each  horse  requires  from  seven  hundred  to  one  thousand 
cubic  feet  of  space.  This  requires  a  width  of  twenty  feet 
for  a  single  row  of  stalls  and  thirty  feet  for  a  double  row. 
Ceilings  should  be  eight  feet  in  the  clear.  Single  stalls  are 
four  feet  six  inches  wide,  and  double  stalls,  eight  feet.  A 
very  shallow  gutter  of  about  two  inches  is  useful. 

Hog  Houses.  These  are  constructed  in  two  ways:  (1) 
the  individual  or  colony  house,  and  (2)  the  concentrated 
house  or  swine  barn.  The  advantage  of  the  colony  house 
is  less  danger  of  spreading  disease.  If  the  location  becomes 
unsanitary,  the  house  may  be  moved  to  better  location. 
The  house  can  be  put  at  the  opposite  end  of  lot  from  the 
trough,  thus  affording  the  pigs  more  exercise  and  keeping 
them  free  from  disturbance  at  farrowing  time. 

The  advantages  of  the  concentrated  type  are  (1)  that 
it  has  a  better  appearance;  (2)  that  it  saves  time  in  handling; 
(3)  that  it  is  more  easily  heated  in  northern  climates  for 
early  litters;  (4)  and  that  it  saves  fencing. 

The  individual  house  is  usually  made  nowadays  of 
the  A  type,  and  of  varied  construction;  the  customary 
dimensions  are  eight  square  feet  at  the  bottom  and  six 
feet  eight  inches  in  height,  which  size  requires  an  eight- 
foot  rafter. 

Poultry  Houses.  Successful  poultrymen  agree  that  a 
knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  principles  involved  in 
the  proper  housing  of  poultry  are  necessary  to  success  along 
this  line. 

(1)  The  first  point  to  consider  is  dry  quarters.  If  an 
earth  floor  is  used,  it  should  be  well-drained  and  kept  dry; 
if  concrete  is  used,  gravel  beneath  or  a  layer  of  tarred  felt 
through  the  middle  will  prevent  dampness.  (2)  Ventilation 
is  also  vital.  Fowls  can  stand  reasonably  cold  air  better 
than  impure  air,  even  though  it  be  warm;  hence,  we  have 
changed  our  choice  from  the  closed  heated  house  to  one  with 
open  front.     It  is  necessary  in  these  houses  to  have  the  back 


FARM  BUILDINGS  411 

constructed  of  matched  lumber  to  prevent  draughts.  (3) 
The  house  should  face  the  south,  thus  insuring  plenty  of 
sunlight  and  warmth.  Sunlight  is  also  a  disinfectant  and 
germicide.  (4)  It  should  be  made  convenient.  Care  should 
be  exercised  in  this  respect;  doors,  fixtures,  nests,  and  drop 
boards  should  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be 
easily  reached  and  kept  clean.  The  building  should  be 
located  conveniently  to  the  house.  (5)  To  avoid  danger 
from  rats  and  mice  the  building  should  not  be  placed  near 
a  granary.  Nests,  perches,  and  interior  finish  should  be  as 
smooth  and  free  from  cracks  as  possible  so  as  not  to  harbor 
mites.  (6)  The  cost  of  the  house  should  not  exceed  $1.25 
a  fowl  and  may  be  as  low  as  $.60. 

As  in  the  case  of  hogs,  two  systems  of  housing  are  used: 
(1)  the  colony  type,  or  small  movable  house,  and  (2)  the 
permanent  type  of  large  house.  The  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  are  similar  to  those  for  housing  swine. 

Silos.  While  the  silo  has  not  been  used  to  any  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  West  as  yet,  the  increased  interest 
manifest  during  the  last  year  or  two  and  the  number  of 
silos  that  have  been  built  justify  a  consideration  of  them. 
The  materials  used  in  this  section  are  wood  stave,  concrete 
block,  and  concrete  in  continuous  walls,  known  as  mono- 
lithic concrete.  These  types  have  all  been  tried  out  and  all 
give  reasonable  satisfaction.  The  old  idea,  that  the  acids 
of  the  silage  would  affect  the  concrete  and  in  time  cause  it 
to  crumble,  has  been  entirely  overthrown  by  more  recent 
experience  and  it  is  conceded  that  the  concrete  silo  is  un- 
questionably a  success.  Wood  silos  are  slightly  cheaper 
than  cement,  costing  about  $2.40  for  each  ton  of  storage 
capacity  while  the  monolithic^  concrete  costs  approximately 
$2.60  to  $3.00  and  block  silos,  on  the  average,  about  $.70 
per  ton  more  than  the  monolithic. 

The  diameter  of  the  silo  is  determined  by  the  number 
of  cows  to  be  fed,  as  two  to  three  inches  must  be  used  from 


412 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


the  top  each  day  to  prevent  spoiUng.  The  height  is  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  cows  and  the  number  of  days  they 
are  to  be  fed  each  season. 

Table  XI. — Diameters  of  Silos 


Number  of  Dairy  Cows 

Feed  for  180 
days 

Feed  for  240 
days 

Diameter  of 
Silo 

8 ■ 

29  to"s 

40  tons 

48  " 

72  " 

%  " 

120  " 

144  " 

168  " 

192  " 

216  " 

240  " 

288  " 

336  " 

384  " 

432  " 

480  " 

8  feet 

10 

36 
54 
72 
•  90 
108 
126 
144 
162 
180 
216 
252 
288 
324 
360 

< 
< 

< 
< 

< 

< 

< 

10  " 

15 

10  " 

20 

12  " 

25 

14  " 

30 

35 

40 

16  " 
16  " 

18  " 

45 

18  " 

50 

60 

20  " 
22  " 

70 

22  " 

80 '. 

22  " 

90 

22  " 

100 

22  " 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Can  a  man  be  judged  by  his  farm  buildings? 

2.  Describe  a  good  layout. 

3.  How  near  should  barns  be  to  the  house? 

4.  What  is  considered  a  good  site  for  the  farm  buildings? 

5.  What  are  the  things  to  keep  in  mind  in  planning  the  barn? 

6.  Discuss  floors,  stanchions,  stalls,  and  drains  for  the  barn. 

7.  How  should  hog  houses  be  constructed? 

8.  Give  the  essentials  of  good  poultry  houses. 

9.  How  much  do  silos  cost? 

10.  What  determines  their  size? 

11.  Give  sizes  for  various  quantities  of  feed. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Visit  barns.     Decide  what  kind  is  best.     Draw  rough  plans. 

2.  Collect  pictures. 

REFERENCES 

Farm  Structure,  Ekblaw. 
The  Farmstead,  Rol)crts. 
Farm  Buildings,  Breeders  Gazette  Co. 


FARM  BUILDING8  413 

Modern  Farm  Buildings,  Hopkins. 
Silos:     Construction  and  Service,  M.  L.  King. 
Farm  Management,  Warren. 

Transactions  America,  Society  of  Agricultural  Eng. 
Concrete  in  the  Country,  Universal  Port.  Cement  Co. 
Louden  Barn  Plans,  Louden  Mach.  Co.,  Fairfield,  Iowa. 
Building  the  Dairy  Barn,  James  Mfg.  Co.,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 
No.  438.     Hog  Houses. 

463.     The  Sanitary  Privy. 

474.  Use  of  Paint  on  the  Farm. 

475.  Ice  Houses. 
589.     Homemade  Silos. 

623.  Ice  Houses  and  the  Use  of  Ice  on  the  Dairy  Farm. 

828.  Farm  Reservoirs. 

847.  Potato  Storage  and  Storage  Houses. 

906,  The  Self-feeder  for  Hogs. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 
IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS 

In  a  given  region  all  the  individuals  of  a  species  of  wild 
animals  or  plants  are  very  much  alike,  while  in  that  same 
region  the  individuals  of  the  domesticated  animals  and  plants 
are  variable.  Compare,  for  instance,  the  wild  grouse  with 
the  domestic  hen,  the  deer  or  buffalo  with  domestic  cattle, 
the  wild  wheat  grass  and  cultivated  wheats.  The  wild 
species  are  found  to  be  very  constant  in  every  case,  while  the 
domesticated  species  are  divided  into  breeds  or  varieties, 
and  even  these  are  variable  among  themselves.  The  reason 
is  not  hard  to  find.  The  wild  species  have  become  fixed 
and  definite  within  small  limits  through  the  action  of 
nature's  laws,  but  the  domestic  species  have  been  taken 
from  under  the  action  of  these  laws  and  subjected  to  man's 
wishes. 

Nature  through  countless  generations  has  been  producing 
an  excess  of  individuals  and  then  selecting  from  among  this 
throng  those  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  life  in  that 
particular  region.  On  deserts,  for  example,  most  of  the 
plants  are  white  or  light-colored;  their  leaves  are  small,  the 
plant  thorny  or  hairy  or  both;  and  other  modifications  ap- 
pear which  enable  them  to  survive  in  hot,  dry  situations. 
If  any  offspring  of  these  appear  with  variations  not  fitted 
for  desert  conditions,  they  die  and  leave  the  races  fixed  and 
adapted  as  wo  see  them  to-day. 

Nature  constantly  oliininates  the  weak,  the  unfortunate, 
and  the  unfit,  by  this  means  keeping  the  race  vigorous, 
stable,  and  fitted  to  its  surroundings.  If  we  wish  to  main- 
tain our  domestic  animals  and  plants  even  at  tlieir  present 
standard,  we  must  follow  nature's  methods.     If  we  wish  to 

414 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANT8  AND  ANIMALS  415 

improve  them  rapidly,  we  must  be  even  more  rigorous  and 
systematic  in  our  selection  than  nature  has  been. 

Mendel's  Law.  Certain  characters  in  plants  and  animals 
have  been  found  to  be  transmitted  according  to  a  definite 
law  called  Mendel's  law,  after  its  discoverer.  This  law 
can  best  be  illustrated  by  a  simple  example. 

If  gray  mice  and  white  mice  are  crossed,  the  offspring 
will  all  be  gray.  If  now  these  hybrid  offspring  are  bred 
together  they  will  have  both  gray  and  white  progeny  in  the 
proportion  of  three  gray  to  one  white.  If  these  latter  white 
mice  are  bred  together  they  will  have  only  white  progeny  the" 
same  as  any  other  pure  white  mice.  If  the  gray  mice  are 
bred  together  one  will  be  found  to  be  pure  gray  and  two  will 
be  found  to  be  hybrids  like  their  parents  and  will  give  one 
fourth  white  progeny.  Out  of  every  four  second-generation 
progeny,  then,  on  the  average,  one  will  be  pure  white  like 
one  parent,  and  one  pure  gray  like  the  other  parent,  and 
two  will  be  hybrids.  The  gray  color  is  called  dominant, 
because  it  dominates  over  the  white  in  the  hybrids.  The 
white  is  called  recessive,  because  it  is  hidden  in  the  hybrids. 

There  are  many  color  and  structural  characters  in  plants 
and  animals  that  never  mix  or  blend  but  behave  in  the  same 
way  in  which  white  and  gray  do  in  mice.  The  white  face  of 
the  Hereford,  chestnut  color  in  horses,  and  the  polled  con- 
ditions in  cattle  are  common  examples  of  Mendelian  dom- 
inants. In  interpreting  the  results  obtained  in  breeding, 
this  law  must  be  kept  in  mind,  for  it  is  in  action  nearly 
everywhere.     Surprisingly  little  blending  occurs. 

Table  XII. — Illustration  of  Mendel's  Law. 

Parents  1st  Generation  2nd  Generation 

(pure)  (all  hybrids) 


Gray 


White 


Gray 
Gray 

Gray 
Gray^ 


1        Gray  (pure) 
Gray 


2 


(hybrid) 
.  Gray  J 

White  (pure) 


416 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  Ideal  Sought.  The  most  successful  breeders  have 
been  the  ones  who  have  had  the  most  definite  ideal  or  ''type" 
in  mind,  and  who  have  never  been  lured  away  from  their 
purpose  by  something  that  apparently  offered  more  imme- 
diate success. 

The  smaller  the  number  of  characters  desired  in  the 
"type"  the  more  easily  it  can  be  attained.     The  American 

trotter  has  been 
bred  for  but  one 
qualification — 
speed.  There 
has  been  no  re- 
striction in  size, 
color,  style,  dis- 
position, or  con- 
formation. As  a 
result,  wonderful 
success  has  been 
attained  in  de- 
veloping the  one  quality — speed.  Along  with  this  they  have 
developed  or  retained  vigor  and  endurance,  because  these 
qualities  were  necessary  to  the  one  end  sought. 

The  dairy  breeds  have  not  improved  as  rapidly  in  pro- 
duction, because  they  have  had  to  meet  color  requirements, 
pedigree  requirements,  and  the  show  ring  standards,  as  well 
as  production  tests.  Poultry  breeding  for  production  has 
been  even  more  handicapped  by  the  standards,  because  they 
are  the  creation  of  the  fancier  and  not  of  the  utility  breeder. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  nearly  all  winners  in  egg-laying 
contests  are  white  fowls,  not  that  white  strains  are  really 
any  better,  but  that  a  higher  percentage  of  white  chickens 
than  of  any  other  color  reproduce  true  to  color.  Thus  we 
have  a  greater  number  from  which  to  select  egg  producers. 
Basis  of  Selection.  Much  selection,  because  it  lacked 
definite  basis,  has  been  of  little  value.     For  example,  the 


Figure  189. — A  plant-breeding  plat. 


27— 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  417 

greater  part  of  the  seed  selection  practiced  by  the  farmer 
has  for  its  ultimate  purpose  the  maintenance  or  increase  of 
the  acre  yield,  and  selection  should,  of  course,  be  on  that 
basis.  Instead,  then,  of  selecting  the  largest  and  most  per- 
fect ear  of  corn  which  probably  was  the  only  one  on  a  stalk 
standing  alone,  the  somewhat  smaller  ears  from  a  hill  in 
which  there  were  two  or  three  stalks  bearing  from  four  to 
six  good-sized  ears  should  have  been  selected.  Even  better 
would  have  been  the  selection  of  the  best  ear  from  the 
heaviest-yielding  stalk  in  a  proper-sized  and  heavy-yielding 
hill.  If  all  the  field  had  been  like  the  first  hill,  the  yield 
would  have  been  very  low.  The  first  stalk  probably  lacked 
in  produ'ctive  power  or  else  there  would  have  been  two  or 
three  ears  instead  of  the  one.  The  second  stalk  has  dem- 
onstrated its  productive  qualities  in  competition  with  other 
vigorous  rivals  in  the  hill  and  is  more  likely  to  transmit  them. 

In  the  same  way  not  the  big  potato  but  those  from  the 
hill  which  has  the  largest  quantity  of  marketable  tubers 
should  be  selected.  Bin  selection  of  most  seeds  is  of  little 
value.  Selecting  by  fanning  so  as  to  obtain  only  the  biggest 
kernels  of  wheat  for  seed  would  probably  decrease  the  yield. 
These  kernels  probably  grew  in  short  heads  or  from  stools 
that  had  only  one  or  two  heads. 

Too  many  dairy  cows  have  been  selected  for  show  ring 
points  or  because  they  gave  a  large  amount  of  milk,  with- 
out knowing  anything  about  the  fat  content.  A  cow  that 
continues  to  give  good  results  for  a  number  of  years  is  better 
than  one  that  gives  a  good  yield  one  year  and  then  drops 
down  again.  In  poultry  breeding  it  has  been  learned  that  the 
exceptional  producer  of  the  first  year  rarely  holds  out,  but 
that  the  largest  number  of  eggs  and  the  most  vigorous 
strains  come  from  more  moderate  producers. 

Hereditary  Power.  The  most  rapid  and  definite  improve- 
ment of  a  given  strain,  however,  requires  the  use  of  still 
another  principle  in  selection.     The  potato  that  goes  into 


418  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE     ■ 

the  ground  decays  and  disappears.  It  is  only  through  its 
progeny  that  we  are  repaid.  The  stallion,  no  matter  how 
perfect,  is  of  no  value  to  a  community  except  as  measured 
by  the  colts  he  leaves.  Therefore,  in  judging  a  plant  or  an 
animal,  breeders  should  look  not  only  for  good  quaUties  in 
the  individual,  but  also  for  assurance  that  those  qualities 
will  be  transmitted.  Two  animals  of  the  same  individual 
merit  may  differ  greatly  in  ''hereditary  power" — the  power 
to  transmit. 

For  example,  each  of  two  cows,  with  the  same  butter- 
fat  production,  had  four  daughters  with  butter-fat  production 
as  follows: 

f  (1)  600  1 

Cow  A      (2)  300       A  ^.-.^„  oor  lu- 

400  lbs.]    (3)  250  f  average  6Z5  lbs. 

I  (4)  150  J 

f  (1)  500  ] 
Cow  B      (2)  450       A _„_  425  lUg 
400  lbs.1    (3)  400  f  average  4J5  lbs. 

I  (4)  350  J 

The  value  of  these  two  cows  as  producers  was  exactly 
alike.  As  founders  of  a  herd,  cow  B's  daughters  produced 
400  lbs.  more  of  butter-fat  a  year  than  the  daughters  of  cow 
A.  This  difference  would  amount  to  at  least  $100  each 
year  in  the  first  generation.  The  average  of  the  next  gen- 
eration very  likely  would  be  close  to  the  average  of  the  race. 
In  that  case,  cow  B's  grandaughters  would  continue  to  aver- 
age close  to  100  lbs.  more  of  butter-fat  than  the  granddaugh- 
ters of  cow  A. 

Transmission  of  Characters.  In  selecting,  the  poorest 
in  any  strain  should  always  be  discarded.  Following  that, 
the  average  of  the  race  should  have  as  great  a  weight  as  the 
individual  qualities.  In  the  above  example,  the  second 
daughter  of  cow  B  would  probably  be  more  valuable  as  a 
breeder  than  the  first  daughter  of  cow  A.  In  practice, 
the  record  of  every  individual  in  the  strain,  whether  of  an- 
cestry, of  relative,  or  of  progeny,  is  of  value  in  determining 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  419 

the  hereditary  power.  When  this  principle  is  thoroughly 
understood  the  largest  prizes  will  not  be  offered  for  the  ex- 
ceptional individual,  but  for  the  individual  that  can  show  the 
largest  number  of  exceptional  progeny. 

Probably  the  most  common  mistake  made  in  breeding 
lines  by  those  who  are  not  special  students  of  heredity  is  in 
expecting  the  individual  of  exceptional  merit  to  produce  off- 
spring equaling  its  record.  This  result  will  rarely  occur. 
This  individual  was  the  extreme  variation  in  a  particular 
line  from  the  average  of  its  race,  and  although  that  variation 
will  tend  to  be  transmitted,  the  tendency  to  swing  back 
nearer  the  average  will  be  even  stronger.  If  that  animal  is 
the  best  in  one  hundred,  the  chance  that  its  record  will  be 
equaled  by  any  of  its  progeny  is,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
only  a  little  more  than  two  in  a  hundred,  and  the  chance 
that  an  offspring  will  exceed  its  record,  not  more  than  two 
in  a  thousand. 

How  Improvement  Comes.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
chances  are  that  some  one  or  more  of  the  next  generation 
will  equal  or  exceed  this  record.  If  there  were  one  hundred 
animals  in  the  original  list,  about  fifty  of  them  would  be 
above  "average"  and  fifty  below.  The  majority  of  the 
higher  records  of  the  next  generation  will  come  from  the 
offspring  of  the  fifty  best  animals.  From  which  one  the 
highest  will  come  cannot  be  told;  but,  even  granting  that 
the  chance  of  its  coming  from  the  best  parent  is  twice  as 
great  as  from  any  other  one  of  those  above  the  average,  still 
the  chance  is  only  about  two  in  fifty,  which  is  probably  above 
the  truth. 

At  first  glance,  one  might  conclude  from  the  preceding 
principle  that  there  is  no  value  in  pure-bred  animals;  but, 
instead,  it  shows  why  there  is.  It  is  the  average  of  the  race 
that  determines  largely  what  the  progeny  will  be,  and  the 
average  of  the  pure-bred  is  much  higher  than  that  of  the 
scrub.     In  the  same  way  the  average  of  the  progeny  of  an 


420  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

exceptional  individual  will  be  much  above  the  average  of 
the  race,  and  if  two  exceptional  pure-bred  individuals  are 
bred  together  then  the  average  of  the  progeny  may  be 
expected  to  be  still  higher. 

Practical  Applications.  The  methods  used  in  improving 
plants  and  animals  differ  widely  owing  to  the  fact  that  with 
animals  it  is  possible  to  select  the  male  as  well  as  the  female 
parent,  whereas  in  most  plants  this  is  difficult.     Then  too,  in 


Figure  190. — Hen  and  the  eggs  laid  for  six  years,  first  year  at  left,  others  in  order. 

most  animals,  reproduction  is  comparatively  slow  and  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  nearly  all  females,  but  in  plants  the 
great  majority  can  be  rejected  and  only  the  best  retained. 

Rapid  progress  can  be  made  in  improving  the  average  of 
the  horses  or  cattle  of  a  community  with  comparatively  small 
expense  by  the  introduction  of  one  or  two  pure-bred  males  of 
the  right  hereditary  power.  One  such  male  in  a  community 
should  have  between  fifty  and  one  hundred  grade  female 
progeny  in  five  years.  In  ten  years  five  hundred  to  one 
thousand  would  carry  his  blood.  The  initial  cost  of  an 
exceptional  animal  would  amount  to  very  little  when  divided 
among  so  many.  By  continuing  to  bring  in  pure-bred  males 
of  the  same  type  the  standard  can  be  raised  from  year  to  year. 
The  grade  males  from  this  breeding  should  never  be  used,  as 
they  are  hybrids  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  produce 
progeny  like  themselves. 

In  chickens  and  pigs,  which  reproduce  more  rapidly,  it 
is  usually  best  to  start  with  a  few  pure-bred  individuals. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS  421 

In  selecting  males,  as  far  as  possible  take  only  those 
that  have  been  tested;  and  in  this  respect  judge  them  largely 
by  their  progeny. 

In  the  improvement  of  a  grain  crop  like  wheat,  a  number 
of  the  best  stools  in  the  field  should  be  selected  and  each  one 
harvested  separately.  These  should  be  sown  in  rows  of 
uniform  length  side  by  side,  and  a  few  of  the  best  rows,  after 
the  selections  have  been  made,  can  be  used  to  plant  a  small 
plot  from  which  pure  seed  may  be  obtained  or  further  selec- 
tion made.  A  pure  strain  will  germinate  and  ripen  alike, 
and  is  more  valuable  for  milling  purposes  than  the  too  com- 
mon mixtures.  By  long  continued  selection,  even  these  pure 
strains  may  be  further  improved. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  domesticated  animals  and  plants  more  variable  than 

wild  ones? 

2.  What  is  Mendel's  Law? 

3.  Why  are  the  first  generation  progeny  alike? 

4.  Name  characters  in  plants  and  animals  that  are  dominant. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  "type"? 

6.  Why  has  America  produced  the  trotting  horse  but  not  a  drafter? 

7.  What  has  retarded  the  breeding  of  a  "dairy  type,"  an  "egg-laying 

type"? 

8.  What  is  hereditary  power?     How  is  it  measured? 

9.  Can  one  "select"  seed  potatoes  from  a  bin? 

10.  How  should  one  proceed  to  select  in  order  to  improve  a  herd  of 

dairy  cows? 

11.  Are  the  progeny  of  an  exceptional  individual  likely  to  be  as  good 

as  that  individual? 

12.  Why  are  pure-bred  animals  of  more  value  than  grades  or  scrubs? 

13.  How  should  the  animals  of  a  community  be  improved? 

14.  How  can  a  farmer  improve  his  wheat  crop? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Select  two  areas — one  with  rich,  moist  soil  in  the  shade,  another 
on  a  dry  barren  hillside.  Note  the  difference  in  the  plants, 
kinds,  height,  breadth  of  leaves,  strength  of  stems,  color. 


422  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

2.  Note  the  number  of  different  breeds  of  dogs  as  compared  with  the 

wolf. 

3.  Note  the  number  of  kinds  of  tame  pigeons  compared  with  the 

Mourning  Dove,  chickens  compared  with  the  grouse.  Get  some 
tame  mice  or  guinea  pigs  of  different  colors  and  cross  them  and 
note  the  result  in  the  first  generation, — the  second. 

^•.  Study  milk  records  of  cows  in  cow-testing  associations  adjacent. 
Note  the  comparative  production  of  related  animals — daugh- 
ters of  one  sire. 

6.  What  would  the  yield  of  an  acre  of  com  be  if  each  hill  had  one 
stalk  with  one  good  ear — three  stalks  with  two  average  ears  each? 

6.  Make  a  study  of  variation  in  corn  hills,  in  stools  of  wheat,  and 
in  potato  hills. 

REFERENCES 

Genetics,  Walter. 

Principles  of  Breeding,  Davenport. 

Plant  Breeding,  Bailey  and  Gilbert. 

Heredity,  Thompson. 

Domesticated  Plants  and  Animals,  Davenport. 

Variation,  Heredity  and  Evolution,  Lock. 

Heredity,  Castle. 

Heredity  and  Sex,  Morgan. 

Origin  of  Species,  Darwin. 

American  Breeders'  Association,  5  Vols. 

Journal  of  Heredity. 

Journal  of  Genetics. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

533.     Good  Seed  Potatoes  and  How  to  Produce  Them. 

794.    Citrus  Fruit  Improvement. 

803.    Horse  Breeding  Suggestions  for  Farmers. 


CHAPTER  XLIX 

LIGHT  AND  THE  WATER  SUPPLY 

Wherever  ordinary  care  is  taken  to  promote  proper  sani- 
tation, the  water  supply  must  be  guarded  judiciously, 
because  it  gathers  impurities  rather  easily.  Likewise,  light  is 
a  serious  problem  in  all  buildings,  because  defects  are  likely 
to  be  unnoticed.  Neglect  of  either  light  or  water  is  fraught 
with  so  much  danger  as  to  deserve  constant  attention:  they 
are  of  prime  importance  to  best  health. 

LIGHT 

In  any  building  designed  to  be  occupied  by  human  beings, 
adequate  provision  should  be  made  for  the  entrance  of  light 
and  air.  One  of  the  most  valuable  things  in  the  home,  from  a 
sanitary  standpoint,  is  ample  window  space.  In  the  build- 
ing of  a  house  and  in  the  placing  of  the  windows,  advantage 
should  be  taken  of  the  southern  sun  in  order  to  reach  by 
direct  sunlight  as  much  of  the  floor  and  wall  space  as  possi- 
ble. Light,  in  addition  to  its  value  as  a  sanitary  agent,  has 
a  marked  physiological  influence  upon  those  who  live  in  the 
house.  Poorly  lighted  rooms  have  a  decidedly  depressing 
effect,  physically,  upon  the  housewife  especially,  who  spends 
much  time  in  the  house. 

The  eye-strain  which  follows  reading  in  poorly  lighted 
rooms  tends  to  encourage  undesirable,  physiological  reac- 
tions such  as  defective  digestion,  circulation,  and  excretion. 
Irritability  is  increased  by  working  in  rooms  poorly  lighted. 
Although  shade  trees  and  shrubs  have  great  value  in  beau- 
tifying the  home  and  in  protecting  us  from  the  extreme  heat 
of  the  sun,  yet  these  should  be  so  arranged  around  the  house 
that  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  entrance  of  light. 

423 


424  WESTERN  AORICULTURE 

Bacteria  do  not  thrive  in  the  presence  of  diffused  light 
and  may  be  killed  by  the  continuous  application  of  sunUght. 
It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  cleanliness  of  a  room,  from 
the  standpoint  of  bacteria,  will  vary  directly  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  light,  and  especially  sunlight,  admitted. 
When  it  is  considered  that  many  disease  germs,  such  as  the 
germs  causing  tuberculosis  (or  consumption,  as  the  lung 
form  of  this  disease  is  called)  and  diphtheria  are  deposited 
on  the  floor  with  the  spittle  and  various  other  excreta  of  the 
body,  any  agent  that  will  kill  these  is  welcome. 

Artificial  Light.  The  Rocky  Mountain  States  are  espe- 
cially fortunate  in  that  they  comprise  an  area  where  elec- 
tricity is  generated  in  large  quantities  and  they  consequently 
have  available  for  lighting,  as  well  as  for  various  other  pur- 
poses, electricity  at  reasonable  rates.  This  facility  elimi- 
nates, in  large  measure,  the  unsatisfactory  and  dangerous 
gasoline  lamp,  the  candle,  and  the  gas  devices  so  common  in 
many  other  localities. 

Civilization  demands  that  the  working  day  extend  far 
beyond  the  *'sun  to  sun"  of  older  times.  Much  of  the  social 
family  life  is  encompassed  in  the  period  following  the  day's 
labor  and  preceding  retirement  at  from  nine  to  eleven  o'clock. 
In  making  this  period  cheerful  electricity  has  contributed  a 
large  share. 

There  are  a  few  general  principles  which  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  lighting  of  homes.  Contrasts  of  extreme  light 
and  darkness  should  be  avoided;  the  light  should  be  diffused 
as  evenly  as  possible  throughout  the  rooms;  bright  glares 
should  be  avoided.  For  this  purpose  the  reflected  or  "in- 
visible" light  has  come  very  recently  into  quite  general  use 
not  only  in  public  places  but  in  homes.  The  globes 
are  held  in  an  opaque  cup  and  the  light  is  reflected  against  the 
ceiling  or  wall.  A  frosting  over  the  globe  aids  materially  in 
satisfactorily  diffusing  the  light  and  avoiding  the  eye-strain 
of  a  too  concentrated  light. 


LIGHT  AND  WATER  SUPPLY  425 

WATER 

Water  is  necessary  for  all  animal  life;  the  human  body  is 
composed  of  about  sixty-five  per  cent  of  water,  which  is  con- 
tinually being  lost  by  evaporation  and  through  the  various 
excreta,  and  which  must,  therefore,  be  replaced.  Water 
readily  dissolves  many  substances,  and  is  consequently  seldom 
found  absolutely  pure.  Many  of  the  substances  in  solution 
are,  however,  harmless. 

Hard  and  Soft  Water.  The  water  usually  found  in  our 
mountain  springs  is  called  hard  water,  because  it  contains 
calcium  salts  in  solution.  It  is  usually  characterized  by  its 
inability  to  readily  form  a  lather  with  soap.  Many  spring 
waters  are  rich  in  carbon  dioxide,  a  gas  which  arises  from 
decaying  vegetation  of  all  kinds  and  which  readily  dissolves 
in  water.  The  presence  of  this  carbon  dioxide  makes  it 
possible  for  the  water  to  hold  in  solution  large  quantities  of 
the  carbonate  of  lime,  Hmestone.  Water  on  the  surface, 
such  as  rain  water,  has  had  no  opportunity  to  dissolve  the 
mineral  ingredients  of  soil  and  is,  consequently,  soft.  Dis- 
tilled water  is  also  devoid  of  minerals.  For  drinking  purposes 
water  should  not  be  very  hard,  as  large  quantities  of  some 
minerals  irritate  the  stomach  and  intestines. 

Bacteria  in  Water.  Minute  plants  and  animals  get  into 
practically  all  drinking  water.  There  may  be  millions  in 
each  cubic  centimeter,  if  the  water  is  badly  contaminated. 
Usually  they  are  harmless;  but  there  may  be  the  germs  of 
such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever,  dysentery,  and  cholera.  They 
get  into  the  water  by  means  of  sewage,  usually  from  persons 
suffering  from  the  disease.  When  the  germs  are  introduced 
into  the  bodies  of  susceptible  individuals  they  multiply 
rapidly,  causing  disease  and  often  death. 

Sources  of  Water.  The  well  is  a  common  source  of  water, 
especially  in  rural  communities.  This  is  a  satisfactory 
source  provided  no  water  finds  its  way  into  the  well  from 
surface  drainage  which  does  not  pass   through   at   least 


426 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


fifteen  feet  of  earth,  which  will  filter  out  practically  all  the 
undesirable  germs.  Fifteen  feet  is  usually  regarded  as  a 
minimum  depth  for  a  sanitary  well,  as  a  less  depth  affords 
too  easy  access  to  surface  drainage;  but  even  this  depth  may 

not  be  enough  to  pre- 
vent surface  pollution 
in  loose  porous  soil.  A 
bored  or  driven  well  is 
much  safer  than  an 
open  one  on  account  of 
the  greater  difficulty  of 
the  entrance  of  surface 
drainage. 

To  be  protected  am- 
ply, a  well  should  be 
lined  as  far  as  the  water 
level  with  cement, 
stone,  or  similar  mate- 
rial. The  top  should  be 
at  least  six  inches  above 
the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  the  sides  should  slope  a  sufficient  distance 
from  the  opening  to  prevent  washings  and  dirt  from  entermg. 
In  porous  soil  it  is  well  to  fill  in  the  space  between  the  brick 
and  soil  with  clay. 

Artesian  water  is  very  frequently  used  in  Utah  and  the 
other  intermountain  states.  Such  water  is  usually  free  from 
contamination,  but  is  generally  hard. 

The  water  from  reservoirs  and  brooks  is  liable  to  con- 
tamination and  should  be  used  for  drinking  purposes  with 
extreme  caution,  even  where  the  country  is  sparsely  settled. 
Where  water  of  this  nature  is  used  in  any  considerable 
quantities  for  drinking  purposes  careful  investigation  should 
be  made  of  the  source  of  the  water  in  order  to  determine 
whether,  during  its  course,  it  is  open  to  contamination,  which. 


Figure  191. — Proper  casing  for  a  well. 


LIGHT  AND  WATER  SUPPLY  427 

if  discovered,  should  be  abolished.  It  is  a  matter  of  history 
that  a  great  many  epidemics,  of  typhoid  fever  especially,  are 
traceable  to  poorly  protected  water  supplies.  In  many 
instances  the  diseases  of  one  person  have  been  transmitted 
to  lower  districts  through  the  agenCy  of  water.  Water- 
borne  outbreaks  of  disease  usually  accrue  in  the  spring  or 
early  fall  due  to  the  fact  that  rains  and  melting  snow  wash 
into  the  supply  a  sewage  which  contains  disease-producing 
organisms.  Hence  it  is  especially  necessary  that  water  be 
guarded  during  these  seasons. 

Purification  of  Water.  Spring  water  is  usually  safe  if 
it  is  filtered  directly  through  a  sandy  hill,  provided,  in  all 
cases,  that  after  coming  to  the  surface  it  remains  uncon- 
taminated. 

On  a  large  scale,  water  is  purified  by  sand  filteration. 
Such  a  filter  is  built  at  slight  cost  and  consists  usually  of  a 
settling  bed,  which  varies  in  size  according  to  the  amount 
of  water  required,  in  which  the  water  obtained  from  a  river 
or  elsewhere  is  allowed  to  stand  and  drain  off  from  the  top. 
This  method  removes  those  germs  which  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  reservoir.  The  water  which  is  drained  off  the 
top  is  conducted  into  a  second  bed  for  further  purification. 
The  second  reservoir  is  usually  a  pit  of  earth  in  the  bottom 
of  which  open  pipes  are  laid,  these  'draining  into  a  common 
pipe.  The  pipes  are  covered  with  one  or  two  feet  of  coarse 
gravel  upon  which  is  placed  a  second  coating  of  sand  from 
three  to  six  feet  thick.  As  the  water  drains  through  this 
sand  and  gravel  bed,  between  ninety-five  and  ninety-nine 
per  cent  of  the  organisms  are  removed. 

The  purification  process  consists  of  the  action  of  harm- 
less organisms  in  the  soil,  which,  by  forming  a  thin  film  upon 
the  sand  grains,  have  the  power  to  destroy  organic  sub- 
stances, including  disease  germs,  in  the  water  as  these  sub- 
stances pass  through  during  filtration.  Such  filters  tend 
to  clog  and  become  very  slow  in  action  unless  occasionally 


428  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

cleaned.  The  large  number  of  filters  designed  to  be  at- 
tached to  water  faucets  are  practically  useless.  Filtering 
through  porcelain  or  infusorial  earth  is  effective  but  too  slow 
for  ordinary  uses.  The  most  satisfactory  method  in  the 
case  of  especially  dangerous  water  is  boiling.  The  palat- 
ability  of  boiled  water  may  be  restored  by  shaking  it  up  with 
air  after  boiUng. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  light  and  the  water  supply  deserve  special  attention? 

2.  Give  the  essentials  of  homes  well-lighted  by  day  and  by  night. 

3.  How  does  poor  light  cause  eye-strain? 

4.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  hard  and  soft  water. 

5.  In  what  ways  does  the  source  of  water  affect  its  purity? 

6.  Discuss  purification  of  water. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Examine  several  kinds  of  lighting  systems  if  they  are  available. 

2.  Investigate  the  source,  the  works,  and  plan  of  your  water  system. 

3.  Examine  homes  and  schoolroom  to  see  if  they  are  properly  lighted. 

4.  Collect  pictures. 

REFERENCES 

Any  textbook  of  bacteriology. 

Any  textbook  of  sanitation. 

Any  textbook  of  hygiene. 

The  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House,  Bashore. 

The  Value  of  Pure  Water,  Whipple. 

Primer  of  Sanitation,  Ritchie. 

Primer  of  Hygiene,  Ritchie. 

Rural  Hygiene,  Ogden. 


CHAPTER  L 
GOOD  ROADS  AND  THE  TELEPHONE 

Railroads,  steamships,  and  telegraphs  have  done  much 
to  diminish  the  importance  of  transcontinental  or  interstate 
wagon  roads.  Formerly,  a  man  must  journey  to  town  to 
talk  over  a  matter  with  his  neighbor  or  merchant;  now  he 
can  transact  much  of  his  everyday  business  by  telephone, 
saving  time  and  travel.  Produce,  however,  must  go  by 
wagons  at  least  to  the  railroad  station  or  to  the  countrj^ 
store.  Whatever  railroads  or  ships  carry,  wagons  must  carry 
first  and  afterwards,  though,  sometimes,  only  for  a  short 
distance,  but  too  often  on  poor  roads. 

ROADS 

History.  Roads  seem  to  date  back  as  far  as  any  part 
of  our  history.  It  would  seem  that  roads  have  been  in  exis- 
tence ever  since  wheeled  vehicles  have  been  used.  The  Bible 
states  that  when  Pharaoh's  army  was  pursuing  the  Israelites 
they  had  six  hundred  picked  chariots  besides  many  others. 
There  was  a  road  when  King  Cheops  built  the  great  pyramids, 
since  the  stones  had  to  be  transferred  from  quarry  to  pyra- 
mid. Recently  the  remains  of  this  road  were  found  in  the 
form  of  a  great  stone  highway.  Probably  the  first  stone 
bridge  known  in  history  was  built  at  Babylon.  Babylonians 
understood  also  the  use  of  asphalt,  for  in  the  great  wall  built 
around  the  city  of  Babylon  the  stones  were  cemented  together 
with  asphalt  instead  of  mortar  such  as  is  used  nowadays. 

The  most  important  roads  of  history  are  those  of  the 
Romans.  Even  now  the  road  writers  make  mention  of  the 
wonderful  road  built  by  Appius  Claudius  in  312  B.  C.  This 
was  constructed  of  stone  blocks  with  masonry.  If  built 
to-day,  even  with  all  our  modern  machinery,  it  is  estimated 
that  it  would  cost  from  fifty  thousand  to  two  hundred  thou- 

429 


430  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

sand  dollars  a  mile.  Broken  stone  roads  were  used  in  France 
as  early  as  the  seventh  century.  The  building  of  roads  in 
that  locality  was  primarily  for  the  rapid  transmitting  of 
armies.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  road  engineer- 
ing suffered  a  relapse  in  Europe,  and  the  road  building  which 
comes  to  us  as  most  important  is  the  construction  work 
that  was  done  in  England. 

Traction  Factors.  The  object  of  making  a  road  is  that 
we  may  get  a  load  or  vehicle  with  greater  ease  from  one  sec- 
tion to  another.  The  resistance  from  the  traction  in  travel- 
ing may  be  divided  into  four  kinds:  (1)  axle  friction,  (2) 
rolling  resistance  due  to  irregularity  in  the  ground,  (3)  grade 
resistance,  and  (4)  the  air  resistance  which  is  made  greater 
or  less,  due  to  the  direction  of  the  air  current  as  compared 
with  the  travel.  The  axle  resistance  is  about  the  same  on 
all  vehicles  and  on  all  roads.  The  air  resistance  is  uncon- 
trollable.   So,  only  two  of  these  four  need  to  be  considered. 

The  force  necessary  to  pull  a  loaded  wagon  along  a  road 
when  the  wagon  is  included  in  the  load  varies  with  the  type 
of  road,  but  on  level  ground  is  about  as  follows:  on  an  asphalt 
road  from  30  to  70  pounds  a  ton;  on  a  brick  pavement  from 
15  to  40  pounds;  on  earth  roads,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
from  50  to  200  pounds;  on  gravel  from  50  to  100  pounds 
per  ton;  on  macadam  roads  20  to  100  pounds;  on  sand,  in 
ordinary  conditions,  from  100  to  300  pounds;  on  steel  wheel 
rut  15  to  20  pounds.  Considerable  extra  draft  is  required 
by  irregularities  such  as  culvert  edges  or  ruts. 

When  a  load  is  drawn  up  a  hill  the  extra  work  done  in 
pulling  the  load  along  this  road  is  equivalent  to  lifting  the 
load  a  distance  equal  to  that  from  the  foot  of  the  hill  to  the 
top  of  the  hill.  If  the  road  has  five  per  cent  grade,  the  load 
will  be  raised  five  feet  in  traveling  one  hundred  feet.  On 
an  ordinary  earth  road  the  tractive  force  is  one  hundred 
pounds  per  ton.  Pulling  a  ton  up  a  grade  of  five  feet  in 
one  hundred  feet  is  equivalent  to  doing  ten  thousand  foot- 


GOOD  ROADS  AND  THE  TELEPHONE  431 

pounds  of  work.  The  work  is  distributed  over  a  hundred 
feet.  Dividing  by  one  hundred,  the  extra  pull,  which  is 
continuous,  is  found  to  be  one  hundred  pounds  a  ton.  If 
the  force  necessary  to  draw  a  load  along  the  level  is  one 
hundred  pounds,  then  to  this  must  be  added  the  additional 
amount  of  the  tractive  force  necessary  to  pull  the  load  up 
the  five  per  cent  grade  on  the  same  type  of  road,  making 
two  hundred  pounds  per  ton. 

What  a  Horse  Can  Do.  Recent  experiments  have  shown 
that  if  a  horse  is  to  be  worked  continuously,  as  in  plowing 
or  pulling  a  mowing  machine,  he  can  be  worked  against  a 
tractive  force  equal  to  about  one  tenth  of  his  weight.  For 
very  short  periods  the  horse  may  be  made  to  work  against 
even  up  to  one  half  of  his  weight  and  for  a  fraction  of  a 
second  up  to  three  fourths  of  his  weight.  But  as  soon  as 
the  time  is  extended  at  which  he  is  driven  at  more  than  one 
tenth  of  his  weight  he  will  begin  to  perspire  and  fret  against 
the  load.  Actual  experience  has  shown  that  a  good  average 
horse  can  draw  about  3,500  pounds  on  a  good  road.  When 
grade  is  added  to  this,  we  find  that  a  team  of  1,500-pound 
hors(Js  should  be  able  to  pull  as  follows: 


Per  cent  grade 

Pounds 

1 

About 

6,000 

2 

<( 

5,000 

3 

Little  less  than 

4,000 

4 

About 

3,380 

6 

it 

2,950 

10 

u 

1,972 

15 

u 

720 

20 

Only  about 

300 

From  this  can  be  seen  the  necessity  of  making  better 
grades  and  smoother  roads  in  most  country  districts. 

Types  of  Roads.  The  types  of  road  regularly  constructed 
in  our  locality  include  earth  roads,  gravel  roads,  macadam 
roads,  sand-clay  roads,  and  concrete  pavements. 

Earth  roads  vary  greatly  and  include  those  made  by 
merely  traveling  on  them,  and  those  graded,  drained,  and 


432  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

smoothed.  In  the  construction  of  an  earth  road  there  are 
two  essentials, — one  to  keep  the  water  off  or  out  of  the  road, 
and  the  other  to  keep  the  road  smooth.  The  drainage  con- 
sists in  two  principles:  (1)  drain  away  the  water  which 
renders  the  road  soft  and  boggy,  and  (2)  prevent  the  water 
which  falls  upon  the  road  from  remaining  there  and  making 
the  road  muddy.  The  first  must  be  accompUshed  by  drain 
ditches;  the  second  by  making  the  road  of  such  a  shape  that 
water  will  not  stay  on  it.  A  cross-section  of  an  earth  road 
will  vary  some  with  the  character  of  the  material  used. 

In  the  construction  of  earth  roads  the  grade  and  shaping 
of  the  grade  can  be  largely  done  with  a  grader.  The  trac- 
tion engine  is  more  desirable  than  horses,  because  it  packs 
the  road  and  is  more  steady  in  the  pull.  Earth  roads  in 
thickly  populated  districts  should  probably  not  be  built 
wider  than  30  feet;  in  more  sparsely  settled  districts  20  feet 
will  be  sufficient.  Every  time  a  load  is  drawn  over  the  earth 
road  when  it  is  moist  there  is  a  tendency  for  it  to  rut.  As 
soon  as  the  material  in  the  road  is  in  a  condition  to  be 
worked,  a  drag  should  be  pulled  over  it  first  on  one  side  and 
then  on  the  other,  throwing  the  piles  of  earth  which  accumu- 
late on  the  outside  of  the  wagon  track  into  the  rut.  That 
part  of  the  earth  road  which  received  the  travel  will  be  com- 
pletely packed  and  the  material  under  the  wheel  will  become 
so  firm  that  wagons  will  not  cut  in.  If  earth  roads  are  to 
remain  in  good  form,  the  ruts  should  be  filled  by  dragging 
after  each  rainstorm  during  the  summer. 

Gravel  roads  differ  only  from  earth  roads  in  the  usual 
method  of  laying  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  of  gravel  on  top 
of  the  road  after  grading  has  been  done.  Gravel  should  not 
be  put  on  an  earth  road  until  properly  shaped,  if  shaping  is 
to  be  done,  or  it  will  always  result  in  the  loss  of  much  gravel 
that  has  been  hauled.  The  gravel  should  be  carefully  spread 
before  being  traveled  on  and  not  merely  dumped  in  the 
road.     If  it  is  not  carefully  spread  and  worked  over,  the 

28— 


GOOD  ROADS  AND  THE  TELEPHONE  433 

road  will  be  hummocky  and  these  irregularities  are  hard  to 
move.  No  large  stones  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
gravel  close  to  the  surface  of  the  road.  It  is  found  a  good 
thing  to  harrow  the  road  with  a  steel  harrow  after  the  gravel 
has  been  hauled.  The- harrow  will  bring  to  the  surface  large 
stones  which  will  have  to  be  removed  sooner  or  later.  These 
stones  may  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  ungraveled  por- 
tion. It  is  well  to  follow  the  macadam  rule,  that  no  stone 
should  be  left  in  the  top  dressing  of  a  gravel  road  which  can- 
not be  put  in  the  mouth.  Gravel  roads  can  be  dragged  in 
the  same  way  as  earth  roads  and  should  receive  about  the 
same  treatment,  if  they  are  to  be  kept  smooth.  If  ruts 
occur  in  the  gravel  road,  the  ruts  should  be  filled  with  good 
gravel  and  no  more  put  in  than  enough  to  fill  up  the  hole. 
If  the  weather  is  dry,  a  pail  of  water  poured  on  the  gravel 
will  help  materially  in  cementing  it  into  place. 

Macadam  roads  are  used  in  the  East  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  be  a  success  in  arid  sections.  They  ravel  to  pieces 
if  allowed  to  become  dry.  Cost  and  maintenance  are  both 
beyond  the  means  of  the  sparsely  settled  sections. 

Concrete  Roads.  Of  the  many  types  of  high-class  roads 
the  one  which  is  probably  giving  the  greatest  satisfaction 
is  the  concrete  road,  made  of  Portland  cement  and  gravel 
or  broken  stone.  The  road  is  usually  built  from  16  to  18 
feet  in  width  and  from  6  to  8  inches  in  thickness,  with  ex- 
pansion joints  every  50  feet.  The  road  should  be  built 
of  carefully  selected  material.  In  foundations  and  building 
concrete  structure  is  seldom  tested  to  above  10  per  cent  of 
its  actual  strength.  In  road  building,  the  strain  will  be 
near  the  maximum.  Therefore,  the  material  should  be  the 
best  and  carefully  tested  before  being  placed. 

Cement  roads  are  often  reenforced  with  wire  meshing, 
this  being  placed  about  midway  between  top  and  bottom. 
Reenforced  concrete  has  given  better  satisfaction  than  that 
which  has  not  been  reenforced. 


434  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Concrete  roads  are  well-adapted  to  automobile  traffic 
and  should  be  maintained  with  but  little  expense  for  upkeep. 
The  life  of  the  road  is  not  well  known,  but  it  is  probably 
from  30  to  50  years.  Even  after  the  surface  begins  to  wear, 
a  layer  of  asphaltic  preparation  placed  over  the  concrete, 
as  a  base,  will  again  make  the  road  one  of  high  standard. 

Sand-clay  roads  are  made  by  mixing  these  two  types  of 
soil.  Sand  roads  are  good  only  when  wet;  clay  roads  only 
when  dry.  A  layer  of  sand  hauled  on  a  sticky  clay  road  and 
worked  into  the  surface  will  make  a  road  which  will  be  firm 
and  hard  the  year  around.  This  is  known  as  a  sand-clay 
road.  A  layer  of  clay  worked  into  the  surface  of  sand  will 
make  a  firm  road  even  when  dry  and  this  is  known  as  a 
clay-sand  road.  These  roads  can  be  dragged  and  smoothed 
as  the  earth  road.  When  sand  or  clay  is  not  convenient 
the  material  must  be  carried.    The  expense  is  thus  increased. 

THE  TELEPHONE 

Not  only  does  the  telephone  aid  in  the  transaction  of 
business,  but  it  saves  the  farm  home  from  isolation.  With 
telephone  and  rural  free  mail  deUvery,  any  farm  home  is  in 
touch  with  the  best  neighboring  community,  and  good  roads 
enable  the  family  to  take  personal  part  in  its  social,  educa- 
tional, religious,  and  political  life. 

Mechanism  of  the  Telephone.  In  construction,  there 
are  four  essential  parts  to  a  telephone:  (1)  transmitter,  (2) 
receiver,  (3)  wires,  and  (4)  central  station.  Electricity  is 
the  means  of  transfer;  the  four  parts  are  the  tools  by  which 
it  accomplishes  this.  The  transmitter  is  a  funnel-shaped 
mouthpiece,  behind  which  a  metallic  membrane  picks  up 
the  vibrations  of  sound  and  transmits  them  to  the  charged 
wire.  At  the  other  end,  the  receiver  is  a  membrane  that 
receives  the  vibrations  from  the  wire  and  repeats  them  to 
the  ear.  The  central  station  is  simply  an  arrangement  of 
some  kind  for  connecting  various  lines  of  communication. 


GOOD  ROADS  AND  THE  TELEPHONE  435 

In  some  sparsely  settled  districts  the  central  station  is  lack- 
ing, and  a  code  of  long,  short,  and  repeated  rings,  enables  a 
person  to  recognize  his  call.  Electricity  must  of  course  be 
furnished  by  a  power  plant. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  a  brief  history  of  roads. 

2.  Why  are  they  important? 

3.  Wherein  is  energy  expended  in  drawing  loads? 

4.  How  does  the  steepness  of  the  grade  affect  the  draft  of  a  load? 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  kinds  of  roads. 

6.  Define:     telephone,  telegraph,  transmission,  receiver,  central,  and 

enunciation. 

7.  Describe  the  mechanism  of  a  telephone. 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Secure  or  make  a  strong  box  three  or  four  feet  long  by  two  or 

three  feet  wide  and  at  least  a  foot  deep.  Jn  the  middle  of  the 
bottom,  place  six  inches  of  ordinary  soil.  Slope  this  off  until 
the  slope  just  reaches  the  edges.  Spread  over  the  top  of  this 
about  3  inches  of  clay,  over  this  about  an  inch  of  sand,  and 
then  about  2  inches  of  gravel  as  small  as  a  walnut  or  smaller. 
A  rounding  slope  of  the  surface  should  be  maintained. 
Pound  thoroughly — right  thoroughly — and  let  dry.  Tear  away 
the  box.  You  now  have  a  small  model  of  a  reasonably  good 
earth  road. 

2.  If  an  old  telephone  is  available,  take  it  apart  and  examine.     Ob- 

serve the  use  and  mechanism  of  each  part,  especially  of  the 
transmitter  and  receiver.  Compare  these  with  the  human  voice 
box  and  ear,  respectively. 

REFERENCES 

Road-Making  and  Maintenance,  Aitken. 

A  Textbook  on  Roads  and  Pavement,  Spaulding. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  338.     Macadam  Roads. 

505.     Benefit  of  Improved  Roads. 

597.    The  Road  Drag  and  How  It  Is  Used. 


CHAPTER  LI 


THE  FARM  COMMUNITY 


According  to  the  definition  used  by  the  United  States 
Census  Bureau  in  the  last  census,  the  term  rural  community 
includes  those  aggregations  of  people  numbering  2,500  or 
less.  This  definition  is  arbitrary  and  not  scientific,  but  it 
has  the  merit  of  being  definite  and  as  such  can  be  effectively 
used  in  measuring  rural  depopulation. 

Problems  of  Rural  Communities.  The  rural  problems 
discussed  in  this  chapter  are  those  which  are  primarily  social 
in  character.  Most  of  them  are  connected  in  some  way  with 
one  or  more  of  the  following:  rural  depopulation,  rural  health 
and  sanitation,  rural  recreation,  the  rural  school,  and  the 
rural  church. 

Rural  Depopulation.  The  widespread  movement  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  the  large  centers  of  popu- 
lation has  been  one  of  the  most  important  tendencies,  from 
a  sociological  point  of  view,  in  modern  times. 

The  extent  of  this  movement  is  shown  by  comparing 
the  percentage  of  increase  of  the  population  of  the  entire 
United  States  with  that  of  the  rural  and  urban  population, 
respectively.  The  following  table  shows  the  relative 
increase  for  the  last  thirty  years: 

Table  Xm.^Increase  in  Population  in  Percentage— Oeneral 


1910 

1900 

1890 

Average 

Total  population 

21.0 
34.8 
11.2 

20.7 
35.5 
12.1 

24.9 
53.7 
13.6 

22.2 

Urban         "                

42.7 

Rural          "         

12.3 

The  average  for  the  last  three  decades  shows  that  the 
urban  population  has  increased  3.47  times  as  fast  as  has 
the  rural  population. 


436 


THE  FARM   COMMUNITY 


437 


For  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  there  has  not  been  an 
absolute  decrease  in  rural  population,  but  in  a  few  sections 
and  in  a  number  of  states  there  has  been  an  actual  decline 
in  the  rural  population  during  the  last  ten  years.  The  New 
England  States  lost  5  per  cent;  the  East  Central  States  lost 


Figure  192. — Home  Economics  Association. 

2  per  cent;  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  and  Missouri,  lost  in  ratios  varying  from  7.2  per 
cent  in  Iowa  to  .5  per  cent  in  Illinois. 

The  following  tables  show  the  facts  with  reference  to 
the  rural  population  in  the  State  of  Utah.  These  figures 
reflect  conditions  which  may  be  regarded  as  fairly  typical  of 
the  mountain  states: 

Table  XIV. — Increase  in  Population  in  Percentage — Utah 


Years 

Population 

Increase 

.  Inc.  in 
Urban 

Inc.  in 
Rural 

1900-1910 

373,351 
276,749 

34.9 
31.3 

59.9 
40.0 

18.9 

1890-1900 

27.0 

Urban  population  increased  a  little  more  than  three  times 
as  fast  as  rural  during  the  last  ten  years. 


438 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  the  total 
population  which  is  rural  or  urban: 


Table  XV.— Per 

Cent  of  Total  Population— Utah 

1880-1890 

1890-1900 

1900-1910 

Total  Population  of  Utah. . . 
Urban  Population 

100 
35.7 
64.3 

100 
38.1 
61.9 

100 
46.3 

Rural  Population 

53.7 

Although  the  above  shows  the  state  to  be  largely  rural, 
yet  there  is  a  substantial  decline  in  the  percentage  of  rural 
population  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  tendency  for  cities  to  grow  more  rapidly  than  towns 
is  strikingly  shown,  if  we  compare  the  rate  of  growth  of  the 
four  largest  cities  of  the  state  with  that  of  the  rural  popu- 
lation.    The  last  two  censuses  show  the  following: 


Table  XVI.- 

—Comparative  Urban  Increase 

in  Percentage — Utah 

Years 

State 

Logan 

Provo 

Ogden 

Salt  Lake  City 

1890-1900.... 
1900-1910.... 

31.3 
34.9 

19.4 
38.0 

9.9 
44.3 

9.6 
56.8 

19.4 
73.4 

The  rate  of  growth  for  the  state  as  a  whole  increased  only 
3.6  per  cent,  but  that  for  the  cities  increased  more  than  53 
per  cent. 

Causes  of  Rural  Migration.  It  is  conservatively  esti- 
mated that  thirty  per  cent  of  increase  in  the  city  population 
of  the  United  States  has  been  due  to  the  migration  from  the 
country  to  the  city.  There  are  two  groups  of  causes  for  this 
migration.  (1)  Those  primary  forces  which  lie  deep  in  civili- 
zation and  are  the  fundamental  causes  of  progress  itself. 
We  must  expect  that  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  young  men 
and  young  women,  born  in  the  country  with  excellent  vitality 
and  possessing  not  only  great  capacity  for  work  but  ambi- 
tion to  succeed  in  the  big  things  in  the  world,  will  continue 
to  go   where  that   work  is — where  life  is   complex.     Any 


THE   FARM   COMMUNITY  439 

attempt  to  stop  this  movement  wouldresultinfailm-eanddo 
more  harm  than  good.  (2)  Other  factors  which  may  be 
called  secondary  lie  in  the  relative  merits  and  demerits  of 
rural  social  institutions  and  conditions.  Some  of  these 
which  result  in  the  city  drift  may  be  mentioned:  failure  of 
the  farm  community  to  supply  necessary  recreation  and 
enjoyment,   bad    sanitary    conditions,    poor    schools,    and 


Figure  193. — A  farm  community  under  irrigation  canal. 

inadequate  churches.  These  conditions  may  be  gradually 
improved,  and,  if  they  can  beimproved,therewillnodoubtbe 
some  check  of  the  movement.  It  is  significant  that  the  tre- 
mendous city  drift  has  gone  on  in  spite  of  much  back-to-the- 
farm  preaching.  Any  plan  of  successful  rural  social  improve- 
ment must  aim  to  improve  conditions  for  those  on  the  farm 
rather  than  to  check  the  movement  from  the  farm. 

Rural  Recreation.  An  important  function  of  play  is 
the  breaking  down  of  prejudice  and  misunderstanding  in 
society  and  the  establishment  of  a  basis  for  co-operation. 
Before  co-operative  enterprises  can  be  made  successful  a 
^'consciousness  of  kind"  and  the  ability  on  the  part  of  every 
member  of  the  group  to  understand  and  sympathize  with 
the  interests  of  every  other  member  are  necessary.     This 


440  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

ability  is  conspicuously  lacking  among  farmers.  Farmers^ 
Unions  and  other  co-operative  organizations  have  been  rather 
unsuccessful — the  farmer  has  been  too  individualistic.  Play 
and  recreation  have  not  been  important  factors  in  his  life 
and  he  is  not  in  sympathy  with  attempts  to  supply  these 
things  for  his  children.     But  the  demands  of  the  young  men 


Figure  194. — Typical  Utah  village  community. 

and  women  are  insistent;  they  must  have  recreation.  They 
break  away  from  the  discipline  of  their  parents  and  take 
the  crude  and  unregulated  recreation  which  the  ordinary  rural 
community  affords  or  they  migrate  to  the  city  where  more 
opportunities  for  play  and  recreation  are  offered.  The 
first  choice  means  demoralization,  loss  of  ambitions,  and 
wasted  life.  The  second  choice  means  that  the  rural  com- 
munities are  to  lose  the  best  element  in  their  population. 

In  all  the  age  groups  below  twenty  years,  the  rural  pop- 
ulation has  the  largest  percentage,  but  in  all  the  other  groups 
up  to  sixty-five  years  and  over  the  cities  have  the  majority. 
This  fact  shows  a  decided  tendency  on  the  part  of  both 
young  men  and  young  women  to  seek  the  places  of  greater 
recreational  advantage.  If  this  tendency  is  to  be  counter- 
acted at  all,  it  must  be  done,  not  by  trying  to  curtail  play 
in  our  rural  communities,  but  by  organizing  and  controlling 
it.  Play  supervisors  ought  to  be  appointed.  The  farmers 
themselves  must  take  a  more  genuine  interest  in  the  play 


THE  FARM   COMMUNITY  441 

activities  of  their  children.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
making  farm  life  attractive  become  greater  when  we  get  into 
grazing  and  dry-farm  sections.  Here  the  farm  is  large,  the 
population  scattered  and  practically  no  possibility  of 
effective  and  satisfying  social  intercourse  and  recreation. 

Rural  Health  and  Sanitation.  The  unsanitary  and  un- 
healthf  ul  conditions  which  have  prevailed  in  the  past  on  the 
farms  have  no  doubt  had  much  to  do  with  rural  migration. 
The  farm  buildings  have  been  poorly  built  and  inadequately 
ventilated  and  the  yards  have  been  breeding  grounds  for 
disease  germs  and  disease-carrying  insects.  The  worst  con- 
ditions have  no  doubt  centered  about  the  milk  production 
and  the  water  supply  each  of  which  has  received  attention 
elsewhere.  Here  the  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  public 
sentiment,  strong  enough  to  eradicate  the  unsanitary  dairy 
equipment,  cannot  be  developed  and  financial  co-operation, 
sufficient  to  construct  adequate  water  systems,  cannot  be 
secured.  The  problem  is  a  social  one  and  can  be  solved  only 
when  the  population  is  large  and  compact  enough  to  make 
community  life  and  activity  possible. 

The  Rural  School.  Another  rural  social  institution  which 
is  responsible  for  the  movement  of  some  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion to  the  city  is  the  school.  "Over  95  per  cent  of  the 
social  energy  of  the  nation  is  directly  devoted  to  matters  of 
getting  a  living."  About  50  per  cent  of  rural  school  children 
never  get  beyond  the  seventh  grade.  Between  90  and  95 
per  cent  of  the  population  either  remain  in  the  community 
in  which  they  are  born  and  reared  or  go  to  communities 
whose  interests  and  conditions  are  similar.  The  demands 
upon  the  rural  elementary  schools  are,  therefore,  enormous, 
since  they  must  give  one  half  of  the  school  population  all 
the  training  it  will  ever  get  and  must  Kelp  95  per  cent  of 
country  people  to  understand  the  prevailing  local  conditions 
and  agencies  for  the  winning  of  their  daily  bread.  That  the 
country  school  is  failing  to  meet  these  demands  is  too  evident. 


442 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


The  following  defects  of  rural  schools  may  be  mentioned : 

(1)  They  are  poorly  supported  financially.  The  country 
schools  have  sixty-seven  of  every  hundred  school  children 
and  receive  only  $33  out  of  every  $100.  The  cost  of  teach- 
ing a  city  child  averages  $33  a  year,  whereas  $13  a  year 
is  all  that  is  spent  on  the  average  child  in  the  country. 

(2)  The  school  houses  are  poorly  built,  have  no  satis- 
factory ventilation,  and  are  wholly  inadequate  to  be  used 
as  a  social  center.  Moreover,  they  are  not  sufficiently 
equipped  for  the  giving  of  vocational  training  which  is  needed 
so  badly  by  farm  children. 


u 

La^^i^_^^.  .^^_j#«s> 

^ 

lilil 

7^  '  -^ 

1 

i 

I 

K.ii^--.^«i»^jij>l^^3  *„  ^.g .»   maip 

Figure  195. — Young  farmers  and  college  students  studying  breeds  olawine;  a  method 
of  community  improvement. 

(3)  The  schools  are  small  and  the  schooi  year  short. 
In  a  majority  of  the  states,  between  45  and  60  per  cent  of 
the  schools  have  fewer  than  ten  pupils  each.  There  is,  there- 
fore, a  lack  of  stimulation  to  do  effective  work.  When  the 
school  year  is  only  six  or  seven  months  in  length  the  pupils 
do  not  advance  rdpidly  in  comparison  with  the  city  child. 
Besides,  short  periods  of  employment  do  not  offer  enough 
encouragement  for  the  teachers  to  equip  themselves  for  the 
highest  kind  of  service. 


THE   FARM   COMMUNITY 


443 


(4)  The  school  curriculum  is  not  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  farm  life.  The  textbooks  are  stereotyped,  designed  to  be 
hard  rather  than  useful,  and  the  material  does  not  touch  the 
lives  of  the  pupils  through  their  own  experiences.  The 
literature  which  is  used  is  about  city  people  and  city  condi- 
tions and  the  problems  the  pupils  are  asked  to  solve  imply 
city  life.  The  ideals  held  out  are  not  drawn  from  the  country 
and  the  heroes  described  are  not  farmers.  These  defects, 
however,  are  rapidly  being  remedied. 

Much  improvement  can  likely  be  made  through  the  con- 
solidation  of  rural   schools.     This   would   mean   that   the 


Figure  196. — Farms  in  an  irrigated  district. 

schools  could  be  graded  better,  that  larger  numbers  of  pupils 
would  work  together,  that  better  equipments  could  be  had, 
and  that  the  school  year  would  be  lengthened.  Supervision 
could  be  more  effective  and  the  schools  probably  could  be 
conducted  more  economically.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
advantage  would  be  the  establishment  of  a  rural  social 
center  and  the  development  of  the  right  kind  of  leadership. 
The  Country  Church.  As  nearly  as  can  be  judged  from 
the  few  investigations,  it  seems  safe  to  say  that  the  vitality 


444  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

and  the  power  of  the  country  church  are  declining.  This  is 
shown  in  a  number  of  ways.  (1)  Church  membei-ship  is 
increasing  very  slowly,  and,  in  some  sections,  decreasing. 
(2)  Expenditure  for  the  support  of  the  church  and  the  pay- 
ment of  ministers,  measured  in  terms  of  purchasing  power, 
is  on  the  decline.  (3)  Church  attendance  is  decreasing. 
A  study  of  the  country  church  in  two  counties,  one  in  New 
York  State  and  one  in  Vermont,  showed  that  church  attend- 
ance has  fallen  off  over  30  per  cent  in  twenty  years.  (4)  The 
training  of  the  country  minister  seems  to  be  inadequate 
to  meet  modem  demands  and  he  is  failing  to  take  the  leader- 
ship he  formerly  did. 

The  causes  for  this  decline  group  themselves  about  the 
facts  that  we  have  too  many  churches  and  that  the  people 
are  losing  confidence  in  the  ability  of  those  that  we  have, 
to  help  solve  their  problems.  The  church  has  had  too  much 
confidence  in  the  finality  of  its  own  organization  and  has 
failed  to  adjust  itself  readily  to  changing  conditions.  One 
remedy  seems  to  be  in  the  socialization  of  the  church.  More 
time  must  be  spent  in  studying  the  economic  and  social 
activities  of  the  community  and  less  time  in  poring  over 
ancient  literature  in  search  for  a  defense  of  this  or  that  ritual 
or  point  of  doctrine.  The  ordinary  person  in  our  rural  com- 
munities is  beginning  to  see  economic  and  social  problems 
looming  big  on  his  horizon.  He  wants  the  church,  as  well 
as  the  other  social  institutions,  to  help  him  solve  these  prob- 
lems; he  has  no  interest  in  long  ecclesiastical  controversies. 

The  church,  however,  is  based  on  a  universal  desire  to 
worship,  and  its  chief  function  is  to  provide  a  means  for  the 
expression  of  that  desire.  If  it  adequately  performs  that 
function  it  will  be  in  the  future,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past, 
the  most  powerful  social  agency  in  our  rural  communities. 

QUESTIONS 

1.    Why  is  a  definition  of  a  city  based  solely  upon  population,  scien- 
tifically inadequate? 


THE   FARM   COMMUNITY  445 

2.  Can  you  suggest  other  causes,  not  given  in  this  chapter,  for  the 

decrease  in  our  rural  population? 

3.  To  what  extent  can  the  city  drift  be  checked? 

4.  Why  do  farmers  oppose  Saturday-afternoon  baseball  games? 

5.  Would  a  law  compelling  farmers  to  observe  a  half  holiday  once 

a  week  be  advisable? 

6.  What  conditions  surrounding  the  farm  home  make  the  life  of  a 

farmer's  daughter  uninviting? 

7.  Why  has  there  been  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  farmers  to 

the  establishment  of  consolidated  rural  school  districts? 

8.  Why  is  it  so  difficult  to  get  farmers  to  produce  clean  milk? 

9.  Should  the  school  or  the  church  be  the  social  center? 

10.  Why  do  young  people  dislike  to  go  to  church? 

11.  Which  is  more  important,  the  church  or  the  principles  for  which 

the  church  stands? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Make  a  map  of  your  community,  showing  the  location  of  homes, 

streets,  parks,  schools,  churches,  and  any  other  public  buildings. 
How  might  it  have  been  made  more  convenient? 

2.  Why  do  the  young  people  leave  your  community? 

3.  List  the  ways  in  which  life  in  your  community  could  be  made  more 

agreeable  for  boys  and  girls. 

REFERENCES 

An  Introduction  to  Rural  Sociology,  Paul  L.  Vogt. 

The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem,  Butterfield. 

Society,  Its  Origin  and  Development,  Rowe. 

Rural  Sociology,  Gillette. 

The  Thirteenth  Census. 

Farm  Management,  Warren. 

Rural  Improvement,  Waugh. 

The  Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  Carver. 

The  Country-Life  Movement,  Bailey. 

The  State  and  the  Farmer,  Bailey. 

Educational  Resources  of  Village  and  Rural  Communities,  Hart. 

The  Rural-Life  Problem  of  the  United  States,  Plunkett. 

Report  on  National  Vitality,  Fisher. 

Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission,  1908. 

Challenge  of  the  Country,  Fiske. 

Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare,  Fairchild. 

Rural  Hygiene,  Ogden. 


CHAPTER  LII 
MARKETING  FARM  PRODUCTS 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  several  me- 
chanical inventions  were  introduced  in  manufacturing,  which 
revolutionized  the  industrial  world.  The  spinning  jenny, 
the  power  loom,  and  other  power  machines,  completely  upset 
the  old  methods  of  manufacturing  and  took  from  the  farm 
home  much  of  the  work  previously  done  there.  According 
to  the  old  methods,  a  small  amount  of  capital  was  required 
in  any  manufacturing  process;  the  new  processes  were  to 
require  extensive  buildings,  great  investment  of  capital,  and 
large  bodies  of  laborers  under  a  single  head.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  steam  was  employed  for  pur- 
poses of  power  and  also  in  transportation.  In  many  cases 
steam  or  water  power  took  the  place  of  human  labor,  and, 
instead  of  doing  many  things,  men  came  to  confine  them- 
selves to  one  operation.  Instead  of  one  locality's  having  a 
highly  diversified  industry,  it  concerned  itself  with  the  pro- 
duction of  one  or,  at  most,  a  few  products. 

Specialization  in  Agriculture.  In  time,  this  influence 
became  felt  in  agriculture.  To-day  we  have  the  southern 
states  producing  cotton  for  the  world;  the  middle  states  pro- 
ducing com;  the  middle-western  and  northwestern  states, 
wheat;  California  specializes  in  grains  and  fruits;  and  the 
New  England  and  middle  Atlantic  states  have  become 
centers  in  manufacturing.  The  result  is  that  the  producer 
and  the  consumer  of  products  have  become  widely  separated, 
and  the  problem  of  transferring  the  finished  article  easily 
and  cheaply  from  the  final  producer  to  the  consumer  has 
become  a  question  of  large  proportions. 

446 


MARKETING  FARM  PRODUCTS  447 

The  Middleman.  In  an  effort  to  bring  about  this 
exchange  there  has  grown  up  a  class  of  persons  generally 
designated  as  middlemen.  They  undertake  the  task  of  pur- 
chasing the  finished  article  from  the  producer  and  supplying 
it  as  needed  to  the  consumer.  This  condition  is  general  to 
all  industries  that  manufacture  for  a  widely  distributed 
market.  In  manufacturing,  the  proprietor  had  so  much 
capital  involved  that  he  had  to  devise  cheap  methods  of 
distribution  to  send  his  products,  at  a  reasonable  price,  to 
the  great  consuming  public.  Usually,  being  a  well-trained 
business  man,  he  did  much  to  solve  the  problem  for  himself. 

Marketing  of  Farm  Crops.  It  was  different  with  the 
farmers.  Considered  in  the  aggregate,  they  constitute  the 
largest  industrial  and  capitaHstic  class  in  the  nation;  but, 
when  considered  severally,  the  units  are  small  and  widely 
separated.  Besides,  farmers  work  alone  and  in  contact  with 
nature  and  are  strongly  individualistic.  Co-operative  effort 
is,  therefore,  difficult.  The  result  has  been  that  they  have 
competed  intensely  among  themselves,  having,  as  a  'conse- 
quence, received  very  low  returns  on  their  labor. 

The  low  prices  paid  to  the  farmer  have  not  always  meant 
cheap  goods  for  the  consumer.  In  too  many  cases  a  large 
number  of  middlemen  have  come  between  the  farmer  and  the 
people  who  consume  his  products.  These  middlemen  as  a 
class,  for  the  service  rendered  to  society,  have  undoubtedly 
received  too  large  a  share  of  the  total  output.  It  has  been 
estimated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  that,  on  an  aver- 
age, for  every  dollar  the  consumer  pays  for  farm  products, 
the  farmer  receives  only  fifty  cents.  The  balance  goes  to 
the  middlemen. 

Co-operative  Marketing.  The  leading  farmers  of  the 
country  have  been  thinking  about  this  situation  and  have 
reached  the  conclusion  that  50  per  cent  is  too  large  a  pro- 
portion to  pay  for  the  service  rendered.  In  order  to  elimi- 
nate, as  far  as  possible,  this  burdensome  charge  on  their 


448  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

industry  they  have,  in  a  great  many  cases,  organized  co-op- 
erative marketing  associations  so  as  to  do  their  own  mar- 
keting. In  raising  staple  crops  where  the  market  prices  are 
fairly  standard  for  the  whole  country,  the  profits  obtained 
are  the  results  of  cheap,  economic,  and  efficient  means  of 
production;  on  the  other  hand,,  in  specialized  farming,  very 
much  more  depends  upon  an  efficient  system  of  marketing. 

In  the  case  of  wheat,  oats,  corn,  rye,  etc.,  there  are 
usually  standard  prices  for  the  whole  nation;  but  with  such 
specialities  as  oranges,  peaches,  eggs,  and  strawberries, 
almost  everything  depends  upon  getting  the  products  to  the 
consumer  in  prime  condition  and  at  a  price  so  low  as  to  give 
a  wide  market  and  yet  net  the  producers  a  fair  return.  It  is 
not  to  be  implied,  that  co-operative  organization  is  not 
desirable  for  standard  crops,  but  that  it  is  not  so  essential 
for  success. 

Farmers*  Associations.  Co-operative  farmers'  associa- 
tions have  met  their  greatest  success  in  speciahzed  farming 
and  institutions  closely  allied  therewith  such  as  fruit-grow- 
ing and  marketing,  cow-testing,  cow,  horse  and  corn-breeding, 
grain  elevators,  creameries,  meat-packing,  egg-selling,  irri- 
gation canals,  telephone  and  insurance  companies,  credit 
associations,  and  many  other  industries.  In  fact,  many  of 
these  associations  have  been  eminently  successful,  e.  g., 
California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange,  Hood  River  Apple 
Growers'  Association,  Rocky  Ford  Melon  Growers'  Associa- 
tion, and  others  too  numerous  to  mention.  A  co-operative 
association  may  be  organized  under  the  laws  of  the  state; 
yet  it  differs  from  an  ordinaiy  capitalistic  corporation.  In 
the  ordinary  corporation  the  primary  purpose  is  to  make 
dividends  on  the  capital  invested;  but  the  primary  purpose 
of  co-operative  marketing  is  to  better  the  economic  conditions 
of  its  members  by  securing  better  prices  for  the  products  of 
the  farm.  For  this  reason,  the  membership,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, should  be  confined  to  actual  fanners,  who  should  take 

29— 


MARKETING  FARM  PRODUCTS  449 

precautions  not  to  permit  the  control  to  pass  into  the  hands 
of  a  nonagricultural  class. 

Farmers'  co-operative  associations  are  usually  organized 
under  the  corporation  laws  of  the  state.  Unfortunately  these 
laws  are  not  well  suited  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  associa- 
tions. They  were  enacted  primarily  to  meet  the  needs  of 
stock  corporations. 

Organization.  The  organization  must  concern  itself  with 
local  affairs  and  must  also  market  the  products,  which  gen- 
erally involve  a  wide  area.  To  meet  these  two  conditions  it 
is  desirable  to  have  two  organizations  closely  federated.  The 
local  organization  concerns  itself  with  packing,  spraying, 
inspection,  and  with  the  purchase  and  control  of  such 
machinery  as  may  be  used  locally  in  common.  To  establish  a 
proper  system  of  effective  marketing  is  generally  too  expen- 
sive for  a  local  unit.  It  would  frequently  eat  up  the  entire 
crop  in  expenses.  To  handle  this  problem  a  federated  sys- 
tem uniting  the  local  units  and  covering  a  large  area  has 
proved  very  efficient.  By  dividing  the  expense  among  a 
large  number  of  local  units  the  quantity  of  products  to  be 
sold  becomes  so  great  that  the  burden  of  expense  for  any 
unit  is  correspondingly  small.  Moreover,  the  total  income 
is  sufficiently  large  to  secure  the  services  of  competent  and 
efficient  employes.  In  case  of  the  citrus  fruits  of  California 
local  organizations  were  formed,  which  have  been  federated 
inlo  districts,  and  the  districts  into  a  state-wide  association 
known  as  the  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange.  The 
local  organizations  oversee  the  packing  of  the  fruit,  own  and 
operate  much  machinery  in  common,  and  own  and  erect 
packing  and  storage  houses.  The  districts  forward  the  daily 
'^'"'"  n notations,  secure  cars,  a.nd  arrange  for  the  loading 
shipping  of  the  cars  from  the  various  localities.  The 
Exchange  advertises  the  fruit  all  over  the  world,  secures  a 
market  for  it,  and  supplies  the  various  districts  with  daily 
price  quotations.     In  this  way  the  expense  is  locaUzed  where 


450  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

it  pertains  to  local  operations  alone,  and  is  state-wide  where  it 
pertains  to  the  whole  industry.  Its  chief  advantage  is  that 
it  so  distributes  the  financial  burden  that  it  is  light  on  all. 

The  Board  of  Directors  will  naturally  be  selected  by  the 
members.  The  number  on  the  Board  should  be  large  enough 
to  be  fairly  representative  of  the  members  of  the  association; 
but  on  the  other  hand  it  should  not  be  too  large,  as  it  then 
becomes  so  cumbersome  and  expensive  that  it  is  inoperative. 
This  result  frequently  happens  when  the  organization  is 
made  up  of  several  geographical  units,  each  of  which  insists 
on  representation.  The  Board,  therefore,  becomes  inactive 
and  the  control  passes  over  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the 
manager.  The  duty  of  the  Board  of  Directors  is  not  to 
manage  the  association,  but  to  elect  a  manager  to  oversee 
the  organization;  to  satisfy  themselves  that  its  affairs  are 
honestly  and  consistently  managed,  and  to  offer  suggestions 
to  the  manager,  which,  if  serviceable,  he  is  to  carry  out. 

Stock-holding.  Probably  the  best  thing,  as  the  laws 
now  stand,  is  to  organize  a  corporation.  In  the  organization 
of  a  corporation,  however,  several  precautions  should  be 
taken.  The  amount  of  stock  that  any  one  member  may 
secure  should  be  strictly  Hmited ;  likewise  the  maximum  num- 
ber of  votes  that  any  stockholder  may  cast.  If  this  limita- 
tion is  not  observed,  the  organization  is,  in  the  course  of 
time,  likely  to  pass  into  the  control  of  a  few  farmers.  It  is 
also  advisable  to  fix  a  maximum  rate  of  dividend  to  be  paid 
on  the  stock,  which  removes  the  motive  to  become  large 
stockholders.  .  In  general,  the  dividends  should  not  exceed 
the  normal  rate  of  interest.  If  the  earnings  exceed  this 
amount  they  should  be  divided  among  the  members  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  business  transacted.  When  stockhold- 
ers offer  their  stock  for  sale,  the  articles  should  provide  that 
the  society  shall  have  the  first  right  of  purchase.  If  such 
regulations  are  not  provided,  the  association,  if  successful, 
will  pass  under  the  control  of  a  few  men;  new  farmers  will 


MARKETING  FARM  PRODUCTS  451 

not  be  admitted,  and  it  will  be  conducted  as  an  ordinary 
dividend  earning  corporation.  In  fact,  many  associations, 
organized  without  capital  and  on  a  nondividend  paying 
basis,  have  proved  eminently  successful,  the  expenses  being 
met  by  an  assessment  according  to  acreage  or  according  to 
the  amount  of  business  done. 

Obligation  of  Growers.  Whatever  scheme  is  followed, 
the  farmers  must  be  obligated  in  some  way  to  support  the 
association  financially,  either  by  the  purchase  of  stock  or  by 
a  contract.  Powell,  in  his  work  on  ' 'Co-operation  in  Agri- 
culture," says,  'The  membership  agreement  is  the  founda- 
tion stone  on  which  the  stability  of  a  farmers'  co-operative 
business  association  is  reared."  Experience  has  shown  that 
an  association  dependent  upon  its  members'  honor  for  sup- 
port will  fail.  If  higher  prices  are  offered,  the  farmers  will 
leave  and  sell  elsewhere.  The  result  is  that  the  association 
fails  unless  it  has  provided  against  such  a  contingency,  and, 
when  it  does  fail,  prices  fall  to  their  former  level.  The 
farmer  must  enter  into  an  agreement  which  provides  that, 
in  case  he  exercises  his  right  to  sell  elsewhere,  he  will  pay  the 
association  a  certain  percentage  of  the  sale  price  to  help 
defray  its  expenses. 

The  Manager.  The  board  of  directors  should  elect  as 
manager  a  capable  business  man  who  understands  the  busi- 
ness at  hand.  Then  he  should  be  given  sufficient  author- 
ity to  do  the  business.  To  get  such  a  man,  the  organization 
must  pay  him  well.  To  place  the  work  in  the  hands  of  an 
untrained  and  inexperienced  man  spells  failure.  Too  often 
the  mistaken  policy  is  pursued  of  selecting  an  incapable 
manager  because  he  is  cheap.  A  competent  man  will 
demand  at  least  as  much  pay  as  he  can  get  from  a  pri- 
vate employer;  no  other  man  can  succeed. 

Finally,  the  association  must  avoid  the  introduction  of 
partisan  politics.  They  have  always  disrupted  the  com- 
mercial organizations  they  have  entered.     Each  association 


452  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

should  remain  strictly  a  business  enterprise  and  conduct 
itself  as  such. 

QUESTIONS 

1^    Why  has  a  change  in  factory  processes  affected  marketing? 

2.  In  what  ways  has  agriculture  become  specialized?     Does  this 

affect  marketing  problems?    In  what  way? 

3.  Why  do  farmers  have  trouble  about  marketing  their  products? 

4.  How  is  co-operative  marketing  conducted? 

5.  Name  and  describe  some  farmers'  associations. 

6.  How  are  they  organized? 

7.  What  do  they  buy  and  sell? 

8.  What  are  the  obligations  of  the  farmers  to  such  an  organization? 

9.  How  is  the  manager  chosen? 

10.     Should  there  be  such  an  organization  in  your  neighborhood? 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.     Debate  the  question: 

Resolved,  That  there  should  be  a  farmers'  co-operative  organiza- 
tion in  this  vicinity. 

REFERENCES 

Marketing  of  Farm  Products,  Weld. 
Co-operation  in  Agriculture,  Powell. 
Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare,  Fairchild. 
Farm  Management,  Warren. 
The  Young  Farmer,  Hunt. 
Farm  Development,  Hays. 
Co-operation  Among  Farmers,  Coulter. 
Principles  of  Rural  Economics,  Carver. 
Markets  for  the  People,  Sullivan. 
Farmers'  Bulletins: 

809.     Marketing  Live  Stock  in  the  South. 

922.    Parcel  Post  Business  Methods. 


CHAPTER  LIII 
THE  FARM  HOME 

The  underlying  principle  which  should  guide  all  the  rela- 
tions of  the  farm  home  is  simphcity.  SimpUcity  in  the  home 
is  not  an  indication  of  inferiority  or  of  decadence,  but  is  the 
vital  characteristic  of  all  that  is  best  in  human  existence. 

One  of  the  grave  evils  of  life  everywhere  has  been  the 
tendency  of  persons  to  assume  to  have  more  than  they  really 
possess,  and  to  appear  to  be  what  they  are  not.  Sham  of 
any  'kind  is  demoralizing.  It  is  a  sort  of  dishonesty  that 
will  corrode  the  whole  being,  making  the  life  unsatisfactory. 
The  family  should  have  what  it  can  afford,  but  no  more,  of 
food,  clothing,  furniture,  amusements,  and  luxuries.  If  the 
grounds  surrounding  the  house  are  laid  out  carelessly  or 
with  great  elaboration  without  regard  to  use;  if  the  house  is 
badly  designed;  if  there  is  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  orna- 
mentation and  lack  of  harmony — wherever  these  conditions 
prevail,  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  buy  cheap,  showy  things, 
all  of  which  react  on  the  dwellers  to  make  them  careless 
and  unreal. 

Home  Furniture.  Home  furnishings  need  be  neither 
elaborate  nor  expensive.  Let  the  family  buy  what  it  needs, 
start  with  a  few  simple  articles  of  furniture,  and  add  new 
ones  as  it  is  able;  but  let  all  be  of  some  uniform  design  and 
free  from  unnecessary  ornamentation. 

Home  Art.  All  about  the  house,  its  architecture,  building 
material,  and  paint,  the  wall  colors,  carpets,  and  rugs  should 
so  blend  as  to  make,  with  the  lives  of  those  who  dwell  there, 
a  simple,  harmonious  unit.  At  first,  little  that  is  purely 
decorative  need  be  bought;  but  that  little  should  be  selected 
with  care,  as  it  is  distinctive  of  one's  taste. 

453 


454 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


In  the  reproductions  of  great  works  of  art — pictures,  sculp- 
ture, and  vases — a  person  may  get  a  great  deal  of  that  inspira- 
tion given  by  the  originals,  and  learn  to  love  the  better  things 
created  by  master  minds.  Often  a  cheap  thing  appeals  at 
first;  but  a  careful  study  proves  that  its  qualities  which  are 


Figxire  197. — A  convenient  kitchen  cabinet.   Note  the  swivel  bins  and  sUding  panel. 

only  on  the  surface,  are  seen  at  once  and  are  a  disappoint- 
ment to  those  who  look  deeper.  A  few  good  pictures  and  a 
few  choice  articles  of  bric-a-brac  setting  off  the  walls,  artistic 
in  plain  coloring,  will  make  any  home  a  place  of  rest  and 
comfort  as  well  as  a  place  in  which  to  live. 

Home  Reading.  A  family  that  does  not  read,  or  that 
is  not  provided  with  good  books,  is  unfortunate.  The  works 
of  many  of  the  great  writers  are  published  at  prices  anyone 
can  afford;  the  cost  of  newspapers  and  magazines  is  reason- 
able. There  is  no  need  of  not  knowing  what  to  buy.  The 
librarians  of  our  large  schools  will  gladly  furnish  lists  of  suit- 
able books  and  publications. 

Newspapers  should  not  be  given  too  much  prominence. 


THE  FARM  HOME  455 

Although  we  owe  much  to  the  newspaper,  much  that  is  not 
necessary  is  printed,  and  reading  it  wastes  time.  The  great 
events  of  the  day,  no  matter  in  what  part  of  the  world,  are 
generally  treated  on  the  first  page  and  should  be  noted. 
Often  a  headline  will  give  all  a  person  needs  to  know,  especi- 
ally if  it  deals  with  a  scandal  or  a  crime  or  with  a  subject  in 
which  he  is  not  concerned.   - 

Magazines  have  one  page  for  the  men  on  politics  and 
science,  one  for  the  women  on  home  and  fashion,  one  for 
the  children  on  subjects  they  like,  and,  in  addition,  the 
general  reading.  One  or  more  good  agricultural  papers,  one 
of  which  deals  largely  in  your  specialty,  dairying,  horses, 
hogs,  fruit,  or  sugar  beets,  is  likely  to  help  much.  The 
bulletins  from  your  Experiment  Station  and  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington  may  be  had  on  request. 

As  soon  as  children  can  understand  words,  the  simple 
nursery  tales  and  fairy  stories  should  be  told  or  read  to  them. 
As  soon  as  they  can  understand,  the  parents  can  with  profit 
read  them  stories  of  adventure,  of  lives  of  worthy  men  of 
history,  and  of  the  myths  of  the  Greeks,  the  Romans,  the 
Germans,  and  the  Scandinavians.  Then  let  them  read 
wholesome  stories  for  themselves.  With  fiction  of  the  better 
class,  biography,  history,  and  travel,  and  the  practical  work 
in  which  all  are  interested,  there  need  be  no  unoccupied  time; 
young  and  old  will  gradually  acquire  a  fund  of  general  in- 
formation that  will  be  wonderfully  helpful. 

All  members  of  the  household  should  learn  that  books 
are  sacred  things,  representing  not  the  money  put  into  them, 
but  the  thought  of  the  author.  Regarded  in  this  way,  books 
will  be  handled  with  respect.  Acquaintance  with  them  will 
have  much  the  same  influence  that  contact  with  cultured 
people  has.  Literature,  approached  and  appreciated  in 
spirit,  will  be  a  constant  source  of  pleasurable  and  profitable 
information — of  culture  unsurpassed.  The  Bible,  particu- 
larly, is  worthy  of  continued  attention. 


456  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

Home  Food.  So  far  as  possible  the  farm  should  produce 
its  own  food  stuffs.  There  is  no  economy  in  selUng  to  the 
butcher,  at  a  comparatively  low  price,  calves,  hogs,  and  sheep 
on  foot,  and  then  buying  them  back  at  high  retail  prices. 

Every  farm  should  have  an  ice  house  with  a  cool  room  to 
preserve  the  meat  in  warm  weather.  A  room  six  feet  square 
or  six  by  eight  feet  would  answer.  When  not  used  for  meat, 
such  a  room  would  be  handy  for  eggs,  butter,  milk,  or  cream, 
and  for  perishable  fruits  or  vegetables. 

Vegetables  may  be  had  at  all  seasons;  more  peas  and 
beans  should  be  used  to  take  the  place  of  meat  at  times. 
The  vegetable  cellar  each  fall  should  have  a  supply  of 
beets,  carrots,  cabbage,  and  celery,  in  addition  to  a 
stock  of  potatoes,  apples,  and  bottled  fruit.  The  storeroom 
should  have  supplies  of  dried  com,  beans,  and  peas,  besides 
a  quantity  of  cheese.  With  such  supplies,  in  addition  to 
milk,  cream,  butter,  and  eggs,  the  farm  home  need  not  envy 
the  palace,  as  it  affords  all  the  table  luxuries  that  are  neces- 
sary for  good  living. 

Cost  of  Foods.  Though  the  kind,  variety,  and  cost  of  food 
must  necessarily  be  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  income,  farm 
folk  need  not  depend  very  much  upon  commercially  canned 
and  commercially  bottled  goods.  The  real  delicacies  and 
luxuries  of  the  table  may  be  provided  on  the  farm,  at  low 
cost,  and  with  positive  pleasure  and  physical  profit. 

Home  Amusements.  To  attempt  to  get  much  enjoy- 
ment from  attending  trifling  parties,  picture  shows,  etc., 
that  are  now  so  common  is  not  desirable.  Life  demands 
something  of  variety,  and  provision  for  it  is  proper,  but 
excess  amusement  readily  becomes  a  kind  of  intoxication. 

On  account  of  the  comparative  isolation  of  farm  houses, 
it  is  desirable  that  as  much  amusement  as  possible  be  pro- 
vided in  the  house  where  there  are  several  boys  or  girls. 
Good  nature  and  perhaps  something  of  burlesque  or  mimicry 
will  tend  to  remove  part  of  the  irksomeness  of  the  difficult 


THE  FARM  HOME  457 

and  tedious  tasks.  Let  music  be  encouraged,  and  games, 
such  as  checkers,  chess,  dominoes,  and  some  of  the  new  card 
games,  with  an  occasional  party.  In  fine  weather,  croquet, 
tennis,  ball,  swinging,  etc.,  may  be  adopted  for  outdoor  play 
to  good  advantage.  These,  with  driving,  horseback  riding, 
and  walking,  should  give  sufficient  variety  to  satisfy  any 
one.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  pleasure  the  princi- 
pal end,  and  not  to  cause  some  of  the  family  to  have  all  the 
drudgery. 

Health.  There  is  little  doubt  that  a  great  proportion 
of  physical  ills  comes  from  careless  or  immoderate  eating. 
More  persons  die  of  overeating  than  from  starvation.  Per- 
sons who  work  out  of  doors,  as  most  farmers  do,  can  assim- 
ilate much  larger  quantities  of  food  than  those  who  are 
confined  indoors.  Some  growing  children  and  persons  recover- 
ing from  wasting  diseases  seem  almost  unable  to  get  enough  ; 
but  everywhere  and  to  all  there  is  a  danger  line  beyond  which 
ill  health  is  the  penalty. 

There  may  be  times,  when,  for  a  short  period,  overwork- 
ing seems  positively  necessary,  as  in  case  of  sickness,  accident, 
and  the  rush  of  seeding  or  harvesting.  At  such  times  good 
sense  directs  that  all  do  their  utmost;  but  later  they  should 
take  time  to  recuperate.  Sufficient  sleep  is  essential — primal 
—to  health. 

Overwork,  overeating,  and  excessive  pleasure-seeking  are 
forms  of  moral  degeneracy,  which  are  sapping  away  the 
best  in  many  lives.  The  physical  basis  of  health,  and  its 
greatest  secret,  is  moderation. 

Adjustment  to  Duties.  The  farm  home  should  be  a 
place  of  faith  in  one  another  and  of  helpfulness.  A  really 
successful  home  is  a  kind  of  partnership  in  which  father  and 
mother  are  the  senior  and  most  responsible  members.  They 
must  have  their  work  and  must  do  it;  the  children  must 
have  their  work  and  must  do  it.  None  should  overwork, 
but  none  may  shirk  proper  responsibihty  and  toil. 


458  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

As  soon  as  is  consistent  with  their  development,  children 
should  be  required  to  help  in  some  simple  way;  other  tasks 
should  be  added  later.  The  greatest  boon  conferred  upon 
people  is  work,  and  there  is  no  injustice  in  requiring  that  all 
do  their  proper  share  in  the  necessary  labor.  To  work  and 
to  learn  that  there  are  trials  to  bear,  is  not  only  a  privilege, 
but  it  is  a  right  that  all  are  entitled  to  enjoy. 

Since  there  is  not  a  proper  balance  in  some  homes  in 
number  of  boys  and  girls,  the  boys  ought  to  learn  to  cook, 
sweep,  wash  dishes,  and  scrub  floors;  or  the  girls  to  milk, 
tend  the  garden,  or  help  otherwise  outdoors.  When  such 
changes  are  necessary  or  advisable,  if  the  young  people  will 
think  of  their  common  dependence  upon  the  different  oper- 
ations, there  need  be  no  seeming  loss  of  dignity.  Any  man 
or  boy,  young  or  old,  who  will  not  help  the  women  when 
their  work  is  pressing  or  severe,  has  no  proper  conception 
of  what  dignity  may  follow;  and  women  and  girls  who  say, 
"That  is  a  man^s  work,  and  I  will  not  do  it,"  have  yet  to 
learn  that  ideal  womanhood  is  based  upon  a  willingness  to 
help  in  the  necessary  work  of  life  whether  directly  in  accord- 
ance with  their  own  duties  or  with  something  else  just  as 
necessary.  With  such  a  conception  of  the  home  duties  and 
willingness  to  do  even  more  than  one's  own  part,  the  home 
becomes  a  place  of  joy  and  satisfaction. 

Home  Finances.  A  very  vital  matter  that  must  be 
learned  early  is  hving  within  the  income.  Sometimes  hus- 
band and  wife  have  no  idea  of  limiting  their  wants,  and  so 
live  too  fast  financially;  but  more  commonly  these  two  strug- 
gle along,  get  ahead  so  as  to  be  comfortably  well-to-do,  and 
then,  as  the  children  learn  how  money  may  be  used,  they 
squander  more  in  a  month  than  the  parents  saved  in  years. 
Such  extravagance  is  not  justifiable  on  any  ground.  Each 
member  of  the  family  should  have  first  what  is  needed — 
afterwards,  what  is  desirable.  On  the  other  hand  extreme 
stinginess  is  both  unlikable  and  unprofiitable. 


THE  FARM  HOME  459 

Such  things  as  household  furnishings,  vehicles,  and  live 
stock  must  be  regarded  as  for  the  common  good.  All  should 
use  wisdom  in  caring  for  the  common  property,  in  avoiding 
selfishness,  and  in  causing  unnecessary  work  for  the  others. 
A  boy  returning  with  a  horse  and  buggy,  has  no  right  to  leave 
the  vehicle  out  in  a  storm,  throw  the  harness  down  and  only 
half  care  for  the  horse.  In  the  house  and  out  each  should 
take  care  of  what  especially  concerns  himself  and  thus  retain 
his  own  self-respect  and  avoid  imposition  on  others. 

Home  Rights.  In  all  their  association  all  members  of 
the  home  should  maintain  courtesy  one  to  another.  Proper 
criticism  should  be  accepted  as  a  help,  but  the  spirit  of 
faultfinding  must  not  be  encouraged  or  tolerated;  nor  should 
a  feeling  of  superiority  be  allowed.  Humility,  good  will, 
industry,  faith  in  man  and  in  all  other  good  agencies,  trust 
in  God,  regard  for  the  wishes  and  welfare  of  others,  a  desire 
to  know  that  is  satisfied  by  intelligent  consideration  of  the 
great  questions  of  the  day  and  of  the  necessities  of  their 
general  occupations — these  will  create  the  best  conditions 
for  happiness. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  with  respect  to  home  life:  home,  house,  life,  luxury,  neces- 

sity, amusement,  work,  play,  food,  clothing,  convenience,  neat, 
attractive,  gaudy,  magnificent,  sincerity,  sham,  harmonious. 

2.  Discuss  briefly  home  art. 

3.  Why  should  the  home  be  simple? 

4.  How  much  reading  should  be  done  in  the  home?     Discuss  the  kind 

of  reading  adapted  to  the  home. 

5.  Name  good  and  poor  foods  for  the  farm  home.     The  city  home. 

The  village  home. 

6.  What  is  the  place  of  home  amusements? 

7.  Give  several  health  precautions. 

8.  How  should  the  financial  problems  of  a  home  be  handled? 

9.  What  should  be  the  part  of  praise,  blame,  and  help  between  mem- 

bers of  a  family? 
10.     Why  should  work  and  play  be  planned  ahead? 


460  WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 

EXERCISES  AND  PROJECTS 

1.  Let  each  student  plan  the  time  and  place  of  his  chores,  school, 

and  amusement  for  a  week. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  inexpensive  improvements  that  would  make  your 

home,  school,  and  office  or  library  more  attractive. 

3.  Make  some  of  these  improvements. 

4.  Write  out  the  ten  commandments  for  a  happy  and  efficient  home 

life. 

REFERENCES 

Increasing  Home  Efficiency,  Bruere. 
The  Making  of  a  Housewife,  Curtis. 
Hygiene  Series  (5  Vols.),  Gurlick. . 

a.  Good  Health. 

b.  Emergencies. 

c.  Town  and  City. 

d.  The  Baby  at  Work. 

e.  Control  of  Body  and  Mind. 
The  Art  of  Right  Living,  Richards. 
Making  Life  Worth  While,  Froher. 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls,  McKeever. 
Training  the  Boy,  McKeever 

A  Montessori  Mother,  Fisher. 

Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  Earle. 

The  Efficient  Kitchen  Child,  McBride. 

Primer  of  Sanitation,  Ritchie. 

Human  Foods,  Snyder. 

First  Lessons  in  Food  and  Diet,  Richards. 

Farmers'  Bulletins: 

No.  185.     Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds. 
679.     House  Flies. 

807.  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

808.  How  to  Select  Foods.     I.    What  the  Body  Needs. 
817.     How  to  Select  Foods.     II.    Cereal  Foods. 

824.  How  to  Select  Foods.     III.     Foods  Rich  in  Protein. 

861.  Removal  of  Stains  from  Clothing  and  Other  Textiles. 

870.  The  Community  Fair. 

904.  Fire  Prevention  and  Fire  Fighting  on  the  Fann. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus,  294. 

Acre-foot,  128. 

Aerobes,  53. 

Air  pressure,  61. 

Alfalfa,  126,  138,  141,  152,  192,  255. 

Alfalfa  weevil,  287. 

Algae,  37 

Alkali,  77,  148. 

Alkali-resistant  plants,  152. 

Alsike  clover,  195,  255. 

American  saddle  horse,  317. 

American  trotter,  318. 

Amusements,  456. 

Anaerobes,  53. 

Anconas,  349. 

Andalusians,  349. 

Animals,  55,  289,  297,  313,  326,  333. 

Animals  as  soil  builders,  86. 

Apples,  225. 

Arabian  horse,  316. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  284. 

Art,  453. 

Ash,  361. 

Asparagus,  242,  249. 

Atmosphere,  81. 

Automatic  devices,  132. 

Automobiles,  178. 

Ayrshires,  307. 

Babcock  test,  390. 

Bacteria,  45,  49,  51,  86,  192,  270,  424. 

Bantams,  350. 

Barley,  126,  185. 

Barns,  408. 

Barn  fixtures,  409. 

Beans,  140,  243,  248, 

Beef  cattle,  289,  366. 

Beets,  243,  244. 

Beet  digger,  176. 

Beet  sugar,  380. 

Belgian  horses,  322. 

Berkshires,  327. 

Binder,  172. 

Black  alkali,  148. 

Blue  grass,  198,  255,  259 

Bleaching  flour,  385. 

Brahmas,  350. 

Breeds  of 

Cattle,  291,  302. 

Hogs,  327. 

Horses,  315. 

Poultry,  345. 

Sheep,  334. 
Brome  grass,  126,  198,  255. 
Broncho,  317. 
Brooding,  354. 
Brown  Swiss  cattle,  308. 
Brussels  sprouts,  244,  245. 
Buckwheat,  189. 
Bud  protection,  25. 
Bulb  crops,  244. 
Bush  frmts,  233. 
Butter  making,  394. 

Cabbage,  243,  245. 
Calcium,  97. 
Cane  sugar,  379. 
Carbohydrates,  16,  360. 
Carbolic  acid,  268. 
Carbon,  30,  95. 


Carbon  dioxide,  17,  28,  30. 

Care  of  animals,  370. 

Carrots,  138,  141,  206,  244. 

Cattle,  257. 

Catnip,  249. 

Cauliflower,  243,  245, 

Causes  of  disease,  370. 

Celeriac,  245. 

Celery.  243,  248. 

Cell,  18. 

Cheese  making,  396. 

Cherries,  227. 

Chester  Whites,  328. 

Cheviots,  335. 

Chicory,  245. 

Chlorophyll,  28,  97. 

Church,  443. 

Churning,  394. 

Cleveland  bay,  320. 

Climate,  66. 

Clover,  138,  194,  259. 

Clubroot  of  cabbage,  271. 

Clydesdales,  321. 

Coach  horses,  319. 

Coal,  30. 

Cochins,  350. 

Codling  moth,  283. 

Coke,  30. 

Cole  crops,  245. 

Collards,  246. 

Commercial  gardening,  250. 

Co-operative  marketing,  447. 

Copper  sulphate,  268. 

Corn,  126,  138,  141,  182,  190,  255. 

Cotswolds,  335. 

Cowpea,  196,  255. 

Cream  separator,  393. 

Cress,  245. 

Crops  and  live  stock,  59. 

Crop  production.  Factors  of,  101. 

Crop  requirements,  102. 

Crimson  clover,  195. 

Crown  gall,  274. 

Cucumbers,  243,  248. 

Cucurbitaceous  crops,  248. 

Cultivators,  169. 

Cultivation,  119,  121,  123,  125,  152. 

Currants,  235. 

Current  meter,  129. 

Dairy  cattle,  297,  365. 
Dandelions,  246,  268. 
Devon  cattle,  296. 
Dew,  62. 

Digestibility,  361. 
Disease,  51. 
Dipping  plants,  343. 
Dipping  sheep,  342. 
Disinfection,  375. 
Disposal  of  carcasses,  376. 
Ditches,  124. 
Dodder,  279. 
Draft  horses,  320. 
Drains,  157. 
Drainage,  154,  155. 

Advantages  of,  159. 

Clogging  of,  159. 

For  meadows,  258. 

Plans  for,  156. 
Drills,  170. 


461 


462 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Dry  crops,  Cultivation,  125. 

Germination,  123. 

Harvesting,  125. 

Soil  preparation,  123. 

Sowing,  124. 

Storing  and  marketing,  125. 
Dry-farming,  113. 
Dry-farm  crops,  125. 
Duroc-Jerseys,  328. 
Duties,  Home,  457. 
Dwelling  houses,  401. 

Egg  plant,  243,  247. 
Emmer,  188. 
Endive,  245. 
Energy,  31. 
Enzymes,  17. 
Evaporation,  11,  119,  120. 

Fanning  mill,  177. 
Farm  buildings,  407. 
Farm  community,  436. 
Farm  home,  453. 
Farmers'  associations,  448. 
Fats,  361, 
Faults,  69. 
Feeding 

Animals,  359. 

Poultry.  351. 
Feet,  374. 
Ferments,  17. 
Fertilization,  20. 
Field  peas,  196. 
Finances,  Home,  458. 
Flagella,  50. 
Floats,  130. 
Flooding,  143. 
Flour,  379,  384. 
Flowering,  19. 
Foods 

Home,  456. 

Manufacture  of,  35. 

Movement  of,  35. 

Plant,  33. 

Supply,  95. 
Fruit  trees,  142,  218. 
Fruits,  217. 
Fungi,  49,  270,  275. 
Fungicides,  238. 
Furniture,  403. 
Furrow  irrigation,  144. 

Gallon  measure,  129. 
Galloways,  294. 
Games,  350. 
Geological  history,  75. 
Germination,  17,  123. 
Germs,  270,  373. 
Gooseberries,  235. 
Grain  crops,  181. 
Grapes,  238. 
Greasewood,  148. 
Green  manure,  105. 
Greens,  246. 
Grooming,  375. 
Growth,  18. 
Guernseys,  305. 
Gypsum,  148,  151. 

Hackneys,  319. 
Halophytes,  38. 
HamburKfl,  349. 
Hampshire  hogs,  330. 
Hampshire  sheep,  335. 


Harrow,  167,  168. 

Harvesting,  125.  .  . 

Hay,  197. 

Haystacker.  174. 

Header,  173. 

Health,  440,  457. 

Herbicides,  268. 

Heredity,  375,  417. 

Herefords,  292. 

History  of  the  earth,  73. 

Hogs,  257,  326,  366. 

Hog  houses,  410. 

Holsteins,  303. 

Home,  453. 

Horse-radish,  249. 

Horses,  256,  313,  364. 

Hydrogen,  96. 

Hydrophytes,  37. 

Ice,  Action  of,  72,  85. 

Improvement  of  plants  and  animals,  414. 

Inches  of  water,  131. 

Incubation,  354, 

Indestructibility  of  matter,  56, 

Interdependence  of   plants   and  animals, 

67. 
Insect  pests,  282. 
Iron,  98. 

Iron  sulphate,  268. 
Irrigation,  134,  140,  154,  204,  212,  237. 

Jerseys,  302. 
Judging, 

Dairy  cow,  309. 

Grains,  189. 

Hogs,  331. 

Horses,  323,  324. 

Kale,  245,  246. 
Kohl-rabi,  245. 
Kutter's  formula,  132. 

Lake-formed  soils,  78. 

Lakes,  77,  84. 

Lambing,  337. 

Land  formation,  75. 

Langshans,  350. 

Leghorns,  348. 

Lep^uminous  crops,  192,  248,  256. 

Leicesters,  335. 

Lenticels,  26. 

Lettuce,  243,  245. 

Light,  29,  423. 

Lime,  45. 

Limestone,  56,  92,  106. 

Lime-sulphur,  285. 

Lincolns,  335. 

Live  stock,  59. 

Lucern,  192. 

Lupines,  225. 

Machinery 

Care  of,  179. 

Cultivating,  161. 

Harvesting,  170. 

Milking,  178. 

Plowing,  161. 

Seeding,  170. 
Magazines,  454. 
Magnesium,  97. 
Mangel-wursels.  206. 
Manure,  104. 
Meat  production,  289. 


INDEX 


463 


Marketing 

Dry-farm  crops,  125. 

Farm  crops,  446. 

Potatoes,  213. 

Poultry,  356. 

Strawberries,  238. 
Measurement  of  water,  128. 
Mendel's  law,  415. 
Mesophytes,  37. 
Microscopic  plants,  49,  86. 
Middleman,  447. 
Mildew,  275. 

Milk  and  its  products,  288. 
Milk  veins,  297. 
Millets,  199,  255. 
Milling  of  wheat,  384. 
Mineral  matter,  16. 
Miner's  inch,  128. 
Minorcas,  348. 
Mint,  249. 

Moisture  content.  Influence  of,  93. 
Molds,  49,  270. 
Mountain  chains,  69. 
Mountain  growth,  76. 
Mower,  171. 
Mulch,  35. 

Muskmelon,  243,  248. 
Mustang,  317. 

Newspapers,  454. 
Nitrification,  51. 
Nitrogen,  96. 
Nodules,  45. 

Oat  grass,  255. 

Oats,  126,  138,  184,  190. 

Ocean  beds,  70. 

Oils,  16. 

Onions,  243. 

Organization,  449. 

Orchard  fruits,  217. 

Orchard  grass,  198,  255. 

Orpingtons,  350. 

Osmosis,  45. 

Overfeeding,  371. 

Ovule,  20. 

Oxford  Downs.  335, 

Oxidation,  83. 

Oxygen,  17,  25,  28,  30,  96. 


Parasites,  372. 
Parsley,  245. 
Parsnips,  243,  244. 
Pastures,  253. 
Peaches,  224,  226. 
Pears,  224,  226. 
Pear  blight,  272. 
Peas.  140,  248. 
Percherons,  320. 
Peppers,  247. 
Phosphorus,  97. 
Photosynthesis,  28. 
Physiographic  forces,  68. 
Picking, 

Bush  fruits,  236. 

Orchard  fruits,  223. 

Strawberries,  237. 
Plant,  The 

And  animals,  55. 

And  soil,  41. 

And  sunshine,  28. 

And  water,  33. 

Cell,  18. 


Communities,  37. 

Flowering,  19. 

Fruiting,  20. 

Growth,  18,  140. 

How  alkali  affects,  149. 

Life  history,  15. 

Microscopic,  55. 

Processes  and  water,  34. 

Relation  to  temperature  and  air,  23. 

Soil  builder,  85. 
Plant  diseases,  270. 
Plant  food,  33,  95. 
Plant  lice,  286. 
Plows,  170. 

Plowing,  91,  119,  121,  123. 
Plums,  227. 
Poisonous  plants,  372. 
Poland  Chinas,  327. 
Pollination,  20,  57,  237. 
Potatoes,  126,  138,  141,  208. 
Potato  digger,  176. 
Potato  scab,  276. 
Potherbs,  246. 
Potassium,  98. 
Poor  ventilation,  373. 
Poultry,  258,  343. 
Poultry  houses,  351,  410. 
Power  on  the  farm,  177. 
Pumpkins,  248. 
Pumps,  177. 

Purification  of  water,  427. 
Prevention  of  disease,  375. 
Protein,  16,  359. 
Protoplasm,  50. 
Pruning,  220,  235. 

Quarantine.  376. 

Radishes,  244. 
Rain,  62. 
Rainfall, 

Distribution  of,  109. 

Quantity  of,  108. 

Relation  to  crop  yields,  110. 

Value  of,  108. 
Rake,  171. 
Rambouillets,  335. 
Rating  flume,  130. 
Rations,  362. 
Reading,  454. 

Reclaiming  alkali  lands,  151. 
Recreation,  439. 
Red  clover,  194,  255. 
Red  Polled  cattle,  295. 
Respiration,  26,  30. 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  350. 
Rhubarb,  242,  249. 
Rice,  189. 
Rights,  Home,  459. 
Roads,  429. 
Rocks, 

Classification  of,  68. 

Formation  of,  68,  75. 
Roots,  Function  of,  44. 
Root  crops,  201,  244. 
Roadsters,  318. 
Root  systems,  113,  143. 
Rotation  of  crops,  47,  103,  205,  259,  287. 
Rural  problems,  436. 
Rushes,  37,  259. 
Rutabagas,  206. 
Rye,  126,  186,  190. 
Rye  grasses,  255. 


464 


WESTERN  AGRICULTURE 


Saddle  horse,  316. 

Sage,  249. 

Sagebrush,  148,  255. 

Saltbush,  148. 

Salt  grass,  37,  148. 

Salsify,  243,  244. 

Sanitation,  440. 

Scale  insects,  285. 

Schools,  441. 

Score. cards,  189,  309,  323,  324,  331. 

Second-foot,  128. 

Seed 

Amount  of  vegetables,  to  sow,  249. 

Composition  of,  16. 

Germination  of,  17. 

Good,  41. 

Purpose  of,  16. 

Structure  of,  15. 
Sedges,  37,  259. 
Shadscale,  148,  255. 
Shearing  sheep,  341. 
Sheep,  257,  333,  336. 
Shires,  321. 
Shorthorns,  291. 
Shropshires,  334. 
Silos.  411. 
Slime  molds,  270. 
Small  fruits,  233. 
Smut,  277 
Soil 

And  subsoil,  92. 

And  the  plant,  41. 

Alkali.  146. 

Appearance  of,  147. 

Baking  of,  92. 

Classification  of,  88. 

Dissemination,  58. 

Fertile,  101. 

Formation  of,  80. 

Lake-formed,  78. 

Origin  and  composition  of;  146. 

Physical  condition  of.  43. 

Porous  surface  of,  155. 

Preparation  of,  123. 

Productivity  of,  94. 

Texture  and  structure  of,  88. 
Soil  water 

Downward  movement  of,  118 

Extent  of,  118. 

Storing  and  saving  of,  117. 
Soil  water  wells,  157. 
Solanaceous  crops,  247. 
Sorghums,  188. 
Source  of  plant  food,  43. 
Southdowns,  334. 
Sowing  the  crop,  124. 
Soy  beans,  196. 
Spinach.  246. 
Spraying.  267,  284,  285. 
Squash,  243,  248. 
Stock-holding,  460. 
Stomata,  26,  29. 
Storing 

Com,  184. 

Dry-farm  crops,  125. 

Fruit,  223. 

PoUtoes,  214. 

Vegetables.  244. 

Storage  bins,  382. 
Storms,  65. 
Streams,  71 
Strawberries,  236. 


Subirrigation,  144. 

Suffolk  Downs,  335. 

Suffolk  Punch,  322. 

Sugar,  379. 

Sugar  beets,  138,  141,  201. 

Sulphur,  99. 

Sunshine,  28. 

Sweet  corn,  243,  248. 

Swiss  chard,  246. 

Tamworths,  230. 
Teeth,  373. 
Telephone,  434. 
Temperature.  23,  29,  46,  80. 
Thresher.  173.  175. 
Thoroughbred  horse.  216. 
Timothy,  197,  255.  259. 
Tobacco  mixture.  286. 
Tomatoes,  243,  247. 
Traction  engines,  166. 
Transpiration,  29,  34,  120. 
Turnips,  206. 

Udder,  297. 
Underdrainage,  152. 

Valleys,  71,  77. 
Vegetables,  242. 
Vetch,  196.  255. 
Volcanoes,  70. 

Wagons,  175. 
Water 

And  crops,  39,  136. 

Available,  36. 

Effect  of  surplus,  154. 

Loss  of  by  evaporation,  119. 

Loss  of  by  transpiration.  120. 

Measurement  of,  128. 

Quality  of,  136. 

Quantity  of,  134,  137. 

Relation,  36. 

Running,  83. 

Soil.  35.  117,  156. 

Solvent  action  of,  83. 

Spreading  of,  135. 
Water-cress,  37. 
Water-logging,  36,  155. 
Watermelon,  248. 
Water  supply,  425. 
Waves,  Action  of,  84. 
Weather,  61. 

Weather  bureau  charts,  64. 
Weather  observations,  64. 
Weeds.  262. 
Weed  laws.  266. 
Weir,  130. 

Wells,  Soil  water,  157. 
Wheat 

On  dry-farms.  126,  138.  140. 

Score  card,  190. 

Yield  of.  105. 
White  clover,  195,  255, 
Winds, 

Action  of,  82,  112. 

Cause  of,  63. 
Wyandottes,  350. 


Xerophytei 
X-ray,  63. 


8,  37. 


Yeasts.  49. 
Yorkshires,  329. 


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